Journey to the Upper Waters of the Niger. By W. WINWOOD READE. In the course of his recent journey of exploration in the interior of Western Africa, undertaken under the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society, and at the cost of Mr. A. Swanzy, the author penetrated to Farabana, on the Upper Niger, and to Bouré, celebrated for its gold-fields, 450 miles from Sierra Leone. He returned from Sierra Leone to Falaba, on his second attempt to reach the Niger, at the end of June, 1869, and within a month of starting had the pleasure of beholding the great river, at the large and previously unknown town of Farabana. The Niger here was only 100 yards broad, and canoes for the passage of travellers were only used during the rainy season. The Upper or Western Niger had been previously visited by travellers at two points,-by Mungo Park at Segon and by Caillié considerably higher up; but the point reached by the author was the highest yet attained, and he claimed to have discovered the shortest and best route yet known from Sierra Leone to the river-a discovery which would eventually lead to important commercial results, and which established the singular fact of the rise of the river within so short a distance of the sea into which it flows.

On the Basin of Lake Titicaca. By E. G. SQUIER.

The author gave the result of his recent explorations, in company with Prof. A. Raimondy, in the district of Lake Titicaca, in South Peru. The elevated plain in which this lake, as well as that of Aullagas, is situated, forms a terrestrial basin, termed by the author the Thibet of America. It has an estimated length of between 500 and 600 miles, its width varying from 100 to 200 miles, the total area being calculated at about 100,000 square miles. Its eastern border is bounded by the loftiest part of the Andes, a vast unbroken, snow-crowned range, whose lowest peaks rival Chimborazo in altitude. The slope of the Titicaca basin is gentle towards the south, and the waters of the lake lie at the great elevation of 12,864 feet above the level of the sea. Some of its tributaries are scarcely fordable even in the dry season; and its waters are discharged through a broad, deep and swift, but not turbulent stream, El Desaguadero, into Lake Aullagas; it is therefore a freshwater lake. The Desaguadero is about 170 miles long, and has a fall of not far from 500 feet. Of Lake Aullagas, which the author did not visit, almost nothing is known. The maximum length of Titicaca is nearly 120 miles, and its greatest width between 40 and 50 miles. The lake had been explored by Mr. Pentland in 1827-28 and in 1837; and his chart, published by the Admiralty, was still the most trustworthy guide to its geographical features. Messrs. Squier and Raimondy navigated it for three weeks in an open boat, and the author of the paper bore testimony to the general accuracy of Mr. Pentland's observations. There were, however, some errors, and these he had rectified in a map he (Mr. Squier) had published. The eastern, or Bolivian shore of the lake is abrupt, but the western and southern shores are relatively low; and the water in the bays and estuaries is grown up with reeds and rushes, amid which myriads of water-fowl find shelter and support. The roads across the marshes are stone causeways of Inca origin. It was easy to see that the lake once covered a much larger area than it now occupies. In many places, a line of 100 fathoms did not reach the bottom. The difference of level between the dry and wet seasons amounted to from 3 to 5 feet. The dry season leaves bare a large tract of land, covered with a kind of tender lake weed, called in the Quichua language lacta, and this supports herds of cattle at a time when the pasturage of the drier country is withered. The lake never freezes over, but ice forms near its shores and where the water is shallow. Its waters during the winter months are from 10° to 15° Fahr. warmer than the atmosphere, and therefore exert a favourable influence over the climate of its shores and islands. The prevailing winds are from the north-east, whence they often blow with great force; and severe storms are not infrequent. The efforts to place steamers on the lake have failed, chiefly owing to the scarcity of fuel. The population of the neighbourhood consists chiefly of Aymara Indians, between whom and the Quichuas there is physically a marked difference.

On the South-African Gold-fields. By Captain Sir JOHN SWINBURNE, Bart. The part of South Africa treated of by the author was the district lying between the Limpopo and the Zambesi rivers, and between 27° E. long. and the Indian Ocean. The shortest practicable route to it is by way of Port Natal and Harrismith. There is no public conveyance between Maritzburg and Harrismith, a distance of 150 miles, and the road is very bad, as all the rivers and valleys are crossed at right angles. The Drakensberg is crossed on the road at an altitude of 5400 feet. From Harrismith to Potchefstroom, a distance of 190 miles, the country is undulating and almost destitute of wood. Seventy-five miles further Rustenburg is reached, the last civilized place in the interior; hence to the Tati river is a march of 382 miles through the bush country, a monotonous, arid tract, wooded with stunted trees rarely exceeding sixty feet in height. The mining settlement on the Tati is situated in lat. 21° 27' S. and 27° 40′ E. long., at an elevation of 3200 feet above the sea. The Southern Gold-fields, as far as the actual metal has been found, extends from N.W. to S.E., a distance of forty miles by fourteen miles broad. There are five different mines within a mile of the settlement; two three miles to the south-east, one thirteen miles north; two twelve miles, and one thirty-five miles up the river, to the north-west of the settlement; making a total of eleven mines which have actually been worked and gold extracted. Besides these there are numerous other reefs where gold has been discovered; but these have not yet been worked. In most of the mines two shafts have been sunk to an average depth of fifty feet, and all are upon the site of ancient workings. The original miners appear to have worked the reefs more in the manner of quarries than mines, leaving great holes or pits. There are two descriptions of quartz,-one red and honeycombed, the other of a bluish-grey appearance, the gold in the latter being coarser, but more easily discriminated than in the red ore. The climate of the gold country is very healthy. From the end of April to October no rain falls; the other months are subject to violent thunder-storms, but there is scarcely a day without some hours of fine weather: the nights are always cold, in June the thermometer falling as low as 38° Fahr. about an hour before sunrise, while it ranges as high as 88° or 90° during the day. The prevailing wind for nine months of the year is S.E., blowing strong during the day, and dying away at sunset. The Northern Gold-fields lie 327 miles to the N.N.E. of the Tati, in the Zambesi basin, their northern part being the Umfuli river (the Tole or Banyeka of Livingstone's map), and their southern boundary the Bembees. The latitude of the principal workings is 18° 11' S., and the longitude 30° 34′ E., and they are distant 205 miles from Tete, and 160 miles due south of Zumbo, on the Zambesi; at present they have not been very productive. The country is densely peopled by the Meshuna nation, industrious workers in iron and earthenware, and growing all kinds of grain and pulse. The author, who visited these previously almost unknown people, gave a sketch of their recent dealings with the invading Matabele Caffres.

The Island of Hainan. By R. SWINHOE, F.R.G.S.

Mr. Swinhoe visited the island of Hainan on Government service in 1868, to inquire into its commercial capabilities. He describes the island of Navehow, near Hainan, which was first visited. The chief port (Hoihow) and the capital of Hainan (Kiungchow) are then described, and an account is given of a visit to the mountains of the interior, and an interview with the independent aborigines called Le. Leaving the chief port, the gunboat 'Algerine,' Commander Domvile, which carried the expedition, circumnavigated the island, calling at the most important harbours and places on the coast. Some account is given of each of these.

On the Harbours of Western India. By Capt. TAYLOR, (late) I.N. During his service in the late Indian navy of nineteen years' duration, the author has been employed in surveying various harbours hitherto unused on the western coast of India; and as the results of these surveys, showing the existence of harbours of great capacity and excellence, had been published, he was naturally sur

prised to learn last spring that "the Viceroy has applied to the Home Government to send out a civil engineer, possessed of special experience, to be employed in examining the coast of India, with the view of discovering sites for ports." Among the ports surveyed by the late Indian Navy were, first, Poshetra and Seraia, or Kambalia, situated at the entrance of the Gulf of Kutch, and sheltered from all the prevailing winds. Either of them is capable of receiving the largest iron-clad of the navy. Seraia might be compared to the Mersey, and Poshetra was something between Cork Harbour and Milford Haven, without their hilly features. No expensive breakwaters were needed, and they simply required lights and beacons to guide vessels in and out, wharves for ships to lie alongside, and roads in the interior to bring down produce. Since the opening of the Suez Canal, the northern position of these ports, which previously would have been a disadvantage, has become one of their strongest recommendations. They are 300 miles to windward of Bombay, i. e. nearer to Aden, in the south-west monsoon, the season when the fresh crops require carriage to Europe. Neither steamer nor large sailing-vessel would find real difficulty in getting out of the Gulf of Kutch. The author found that the strong winds of the south-west monsoon blew only for three or four days at a time, and then abate for a day or two. The Muálims, or pilots of Kutch, are a caste deservedly famous for skill and daring; many of them have quadrants and nautical tables, and can determine the latitude by sun and pole-star, and their longitude by dead reckoning. Some of their boats are large, well built, and decked, and carry a pair or two of carronades. Large native vessels coming from the Malabar and African coasts can now, after the commencement of the south-west monsoon, boldly run into the gulf. A third important harbour on the coast of Katiawar was Chanch Bunder, formed by Shalbet Island, and surveyed by the late Capt. R. Ethersay. Southward of Bombay there was the excellent harbour of the Rajpuri, or Jinjera river, without the usual bar of sand that is found at most rivermouths along this coast, but having 33 and 33 fathoms at low tide, and 4 fathoms inside in mid-channel. Next to this, following a southerly direction, was the Jyghur, or Shastri river, the principal channel to which has 3 fathoms at low tide. Kalbadevi Bay, Viziadroog, Desghur, Sedashighur Tudri, or Mirjan river, and various other ports capable of being made serviceable in our commerce with India, were also described in some detail.

On Windward Great Circle Sailing. By JOHN T. Towson, F.R.G.S. The author referred to the tables constructed by him, and published by the Admiralty twenty-four years since, in which he pointed out the value of windward great circle sailing. The other modification of this sailing had been brought into successful use; but windward sailing, although it appeared most simple, had been generally misunderstood by practical men. Some had obtained charts having great circle routes laid down. If they were driven from this track by adverse winds, they returned as soon as the wind would permit them, not perceiving that when they had quitted one great circle there was another great circle, which was their nearest route. Others imagined that this sailing consisted in going a certain number of miles to the northward. The rule was simple:-"Find the great circle course, and put the ship on that tack which is the nearest to the great circle course. In January last he was invited by Mr. Ashbury to prepare sailing-directions for the Cambria' yacht. The directions which he prepared were shown by a chart. It consisted of the great circle course, corrected for variation for every part of the Atlantic that it was probable that a vessel should pass. All the mariner had to do was to ascertain his approximate position, and then he would find by inspection how to keep the ship's head by compass. The distance from the place of destination was also given by another chart, containing the position of both yachts at noon for each day. Mr. Towson showed that the Cambria' saved the race by superior navigation. This sailing gave the greatest advantage when the distance of longitude was greatest; and thus the 'Cambria' attained all the advantage that this sailing could afford in the first five days, which was about 110 miles; afterwards the superior power for an ocean race possessed by the 'Dauntless' prevailed, and reduced this advantage to a minimum.

1870.

12

The principal objection that of late has been raised against great circle sailing is "the series of ever-changing courses which a vessel must pursue." This is correct with regard to true courses; but it will be seen, by reference to the large chart, that compass courses across the North Atlantic vary less than those on a rhumb or on a parallel.

Notes on Analogies of Manners between the Indo-Chinese and the Races of the Malay Archipelago. By Col. H. YULE, C.B.

The author believed the Malayan race to be closely connected with the IndoChinese, although their language, which is not one of monosyllables, marked a great present distinction. He had seen faces of natives from Java, on the one hand, and of natives of Burmah and of the mountains on the eastern frontiers of Bengal on the other, as near identity as human faces ever are; whilst there are many particulars common to the customs and peculiarities of the two regions which seem to argue a close relationship. One of these common traits is the aversion to the use of milk; in Bali, where alone among the islands the Vedas still exist, a preparation from the cocoa-nut is substituted for ghee in the Hindoo rites. Another is the wilful staining of the teeth; and the singular custom of covering the teeth entirely with a case of gold, noticed by Marco Polo among a people of Western Yunnan, existed, at least recently, in Sumatra, Timor, and at Macaisar. The extravagant enlargement of the ear-lobe is also common to most of the tribes of both regions. Another coincidence is an idiom of language of remote origin, in which a term is added to a numeral in the enumeration of objects, analogous to our word "head" in expressing a number of cattle, and of which there are a large number of cases in the Malay language. Precisely the same peculiarity is found in the Burmese, Siamese, and Chinese tongues; and the propensity may be referred to a dislike to abstract numbers. The savage mania of hunting for heads, generally by nocturnal ambuscade, and of treasuring them as trophies, is found, with almost identical circumstances, among the wild Dayaks and Kayans of Borneo and Celebes, and the wild Kukis, Nagas, and Garos of the eastern frontier of Bengal. A superstitious abstinence from certain articles of diet, which is hereditary and binding among certain families only, is found here and there with remarkably coincident circumstances among the tribes of both regions. Another very notable custom is the association of the whole of the families of one village or community in one or in several great houses or barracks. This appears to be general among some of the Dayak tribes of Borneo and among the rude natives of the Pági islands, off the west coast of Sumatra. The very same practice is found among the Singphos, north of Burmah, and among the Mekirs and Mishmis of the Assam border. The practice of ordeal by water is found, with singular exactness of agreement in the circumstances, at intervals over both the regions compared. No one can doubt the common origin of the music and musical instruments of Burmah and Java, vastly superior as they are in spirit and in melody to any thing called music in India proper; there is also an extraordinary similarity of dramatic entertainments in Burmah, Siam, and Java.

The author concluded by stating that these and many other coincidences which he detailed were singly of no value as arguments for some original close bond of kindred, as isolated coincidences occur between the practices of the most distant tribes of the earth, but that their great number must be admitted to have great weight, especially considering the contiguity of the two regions.

ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

Address by Professor W. STANLEY Jevons, M.A., President of the Section. THE field of knowledge which we cultivate in this Section is so wide, that it would be impossible, in any introductory remarks, to notice more than a few of the important questions which claim our attention at the present time.

The name Statistics, in its true meaning, denotes all knowledge relating to the condition of the State or people. I am sorry to observe, indeed, that many persons now use the word statistical as if it were synonymous with numerical; but it is a mere accident of the information with which we deal, that it is often expressed in a numerical or tabular form. As other sciences progress, they become more a matter of quantity and number, and so does our science; but we must not suppose that the occurrence of numerical statements is the mark of statistical information. In order, however, that any subject can be fitly discussed by a Section of this Association, it should be capable of scientific treatment. We must not only have facts, numerical or otherwise, but those facts must be analyzed, arranged, and explained by inductive or deductive processes, as nearly as possible identical with those which have led to undoubted success in other branches of science. I have always felt great gratification that the founders of this Association did not in any narrow spirit restrict its inquiries and discussions to the domain of physical science. The existence of this Section is a standing recognition of the truth that the condition of the people is governed by definite laws, however complicated and difficult of discovery they may be. It is no valid reproach against us that we cannot measure, and explain, and predict with the accuracy of a chemist or an astronomer. Difficult as may be the problems presented to the experimentalist in his investigation of material nature, they are easy compared with the problems of human nature, of which we must attempt the solution. I allow that our knowledge of the causes in action is seldom sure and accurate, so as to present the appearance of true science.

There is no one who occupies a less enviable position than the political economist. Cultivating the frontier regions between certain knowledge and conjecture, his efforts and advice are scorned and rejected on all hands. If he arrives at a sure law of human nature, and points out the evils which arise from its neglect, he is fallen upon by the large classes of people who think their own common sense sufficient; he is charged with being too abstract in his speculations, with overlooking the windings of the human heart, and with undervaluing the affections. However humane his motives, he is lucky if he escape being set down on all sides as a heartless misanthrope. Such was actually the fate of one of the most humane and excellent of men, the late Mr. Malthus. On the other hand, it is only the enlightened and wide-minded scientific men who treat the political economist with any cordiality. I much fear that, as physical philosophers become more and more successful, they tend to become, like other conquerors, arrogant and selfish; they forget the absurd theories, the incredible errors, the long enduring debates out of which their own knowledge has emerged, and look with scorn upon our economic science, our statistics, or our still more vague body of knowledge called social science, because we are still struggling to overcome difficulties far greater than ever they encountered. But, again, I regard the existence of this Section as a satisfactory recognition of the absolute necessity of doing our best to cultivate economic subjects in a scientific spirit.

The great and everlasting benefits which physical science has conferred upon the human race are on every side acknowledged; yet they are only the smaller half of what is wanted. It daily becomes more apparent that the highest successes in the scientific arts and manufactures are compatible with deep and almost hopeless poverty in the mass of the people. We subdue material nature, we spin and weave, and melt and forge with a minimum of labour and a maximum of result; but of what advantage is all this while human nature remains unsubdued, and a large part of the population are too ignorant, careless, improvident, or vicious to appreciate or accumulate the wealth which science brings. Chemistry cannot analyze the heart; it cannot show us how to temper the passions or mould the habits. The social sciences are the necessary complement to the physical sciences, for by their aid alone can the main body of the population be rendered honest, temperate, provident, and intelligent.

In this kingdom during the last thirty or forty years we have tried a mighty experiment, and to a great extent we have failed. The growth of the arts and manufactures and the establishment of free trade have opened the widest means of employment and brought an accession of wealth previously unknown; the fre