It was cemented in the most sacred manner; it placed her inhabitants on terms of friendly and commercial intercourse with the East. It made her the natural enemy of the Turk, who had usurped the crown of the Oriental Cæsars, insulted the national faith of Russia, and deprived her of her most profitable trade.

The enmity thus conceived, has never been forgotten, or for once laid aside. We may question the motives of Russia, in some of her wars with the Turks; but we cannot deny the fact, that she has fought the supplanter of her ancient ally with a perseverance which has but few parallels in history. No sooner had the Turkish power found a home and an outlet on the Bosphorus, than the contest between it and the Sclavonic races began. We are not just to Russia who has enough real crimes to answer for — when we charge her with only trampling on the weak. The empire of the Turks was in the height of its splendor, when she began to dispute its claim to the throne of Constantine. It was not the weak Sultan of to-day, but Selim II., the immediate successor of Solyman the Magnificent, to whom she ventured to oppose herself. Indeed, she began the conflict in self-defence. If the Ottoman power is feeble now, that fact should not be brought forward as a reproach to Russia. It only shows that she has worried out her mighty assailant, in the same way that Peter the Great overcame his Swedish antagonist, namely, by pressing forward with a zeal which no reverses have ever cooled, or for one moment turned aside from its object. So far as her relations to the Porte are concerned, Russia has not been judged so much by the merits of her cause, as by the representations, or rather misrepresentations, of her neighbors, the jealous Western powers. Who shall say that those Northern chieftains, whose predecessors were the friends and kin

Mr. Bancroft, after enumerating the immense dominions of Selim II., says: "Such was the Ottoman power, at the period of its first aggression on Russia. That aggression, the first war between Russia and the Porte, happened in the year 1569." In this war, the Russians were victorious; and thus not only the nature of the long struggle was made apparent, but its final issue foreshadowed.

dred of the Cæsars long before the fall of Constantinople, have been altogether blameworthy in their conflicts with the Turkish invader? 1

The title of Czar, which some respectable authors have supposed to be but another form for Cæsar, was assumed by the Russian chiefs about the middle of the sixteenth century. This was another step which has aided them in their designs against the Ottoman power. The Reformation was now beginning to weaken and distract the Papal church; and the Czar, taking advantage of this state of things also, paraded the ancient love of Russia for the Greek church. The Oriental Christians, those who still adhered to the ancient church of that name, were pleased at this sudden good fortune. They saw, in the Northern autocrat, the

1 These statements are not made out of any love for the Russian form of gov ernment, nor from a desire to defend its policy toward other nations. They are based on the simple facts of history; and, however much we may regret the enlargement of the Czar's dominions, his menacing attitude toward the rest of the Old World, and the fact that one man wields so much irresponsible power, still we cannot affirm, in view of the nature of the contest at its beginning, that the course of Russia has always been utterly indefensible.

2 Mr. Stanley, formerly fellow and tutor in the University of Oxford, and now canon of Canterbury; author of "Arnold's Life and Correspondence," and of a recent very carefully written book of travels in Sinai and Palestine, says, in this latter work (p. 457), that the emperor of Russia "claims to have succeeded to the name and privileges of the Eastern Caesars." In favor of this view it may be said, (1) that such is the general impression in the East. The Czar's friends throughout the Turkish dominions, according to some of the most accurate travellers, believe that he is the rightful heir of the Eastern empire; and his name is immediately associated in their minds with that of the Oriental Caesars. (2) Such is the impression constantly made by the priesthood on the Russian peasantry. The late war in the Crimea was regarded by them as religious in its aims; as an effort on the part of the Czar to liberate those Christians to whom, as the successor of Constantine, he held the relation of protector. (3) If this word (Czar) is an old Russian term, why was it never used till the middle of the sixteenth century? Nations are not apt to invent words, and incorporate them into their language, till they have occasion to use them. From this it is evident that the word was either invented, or introduced from some foreign source, for a special purpose. It was most probably borrowed, as was the idea to which the Russian chief, Ivan IV., applied it. And that it came from the East, and is the same as Caesar, we are inclined to believe not only from the similarity of form and sound, but because the Russians obtained their ideas of a monarchy, as well as their religion, from their intercourse with the people and emperors at Constantinople.

spirit of the first emperors. They willingly regarded him as the successor of the great Constantine, who would deliver them from the yoke of the Infidel, and recover for them their long lost privileges. Eastern Christianity was proclaimed anew, as the national faith of Russia; and from that time forth, the members of the Greek church, everywhere, began to look to the Czar as their protector and champion.

The emperor is the head of the Greek church; and, from the highest metropolitan bishop, down through all the grades of the priesthood, he makes it subservient to his schemes for conquest. It is necessary to his plans; and for this reason, if no better, he professes great affection for it. Its magnates are permitted to live in splendor. Saints, without number," have been canonized to please the vulgar fancy. Churches, filled with pictures of the Virgin and Child, may be seen in every village. Not a week passes,

2

1 Peter the Great" constituted a supreme court for its government, called the MOST HOLY SYNOD, of which he appointed himself president, and delegated a procurator to occupy his place during his absence, without whom no meeting of the synod could be held, and without whose consent no decision could be valid. Since that time the emperors of Russia have held the most absolute supremacy over the church of Russia. It may be added. that as the Greek church has no means of maintaining its independent existence in either Papal or Mohammedan countries, but must look to Russia as the only powerful country that adheres to its faith, the Russian autocrat may be said to hold the most absolute supremacy over the Greek church wherever it exists, or at least to be naturally regarded as its protector."- Encycl. Brit., Article "Greek Church."

2 The dress and equipage of the metropolitans of St. Petersburg and Moscow, are described by travellers as far surpassing that of the emperor in splendor and richness; and it is also said that the latter prelate is held in such reverence and respect by the common people, as to excite no little uneasiness in the emperor's mind from time to time.

"Since the division of the Christian church into the Eastern and Western, a vast number of extra saints have been added to each." But the Russians have "about twice as many as the Romanists."- See "Englishwoman in Russia," p. 297.

The "Russian churches are much decorated internally; in some the walls are entirely covered with the pictures of saints, the Virgin and Child." "There is an immense deal of gilding about the churches, which, with rows of saints, all in gold and silver dresses, lighted up by innumerable little lamps suspended before them, the small tapers stuck in stands here and there, and candles of gigantic circumference in silver sconces, near the shrines and altars, make a

without bringing to the poor serfs some religious festival. And the Sabbath is, to all classes, a grand holiday. The Greek church is, to the Russian monarchy, what Napoleon wished the papal church to become to the French empire. He seems to have regarded it as the office of religion, in a great measure, to amuse the common people;1 to give them festivals and holidays, and fill them so full of anticipations of happiness in another life, that they shall forget how their rulers oppress and make use of them in this. It does not heighten our estimate of his piety, so much eulogized by some, to know that, in his prosperous days at least, he placed the rites of Christian worship so nearly on a level with the theatre, the circus, and the military review. The Western church, however, was not so facile as the Eastern had been. Unlike her more pliant rival, who had become so interlocked with ambitious Russia, Rome still claimed to be superior to the State. Where she sought alliance with kings, it was not that she might grow up under their protection, so much as that she might, sooner or later, place her foot upon their necks.

The subserviency of religion to politics in Russia, renders the emperor tolerant. He wishes all his people to be so contented, in the enjoyment of their religious opinions, that he may not fear to govern them, in other respects, as his aggressive schemes may require. Many of the peasants still practise the superstitious rites of the Northmen; and much

very glittering appearance, and harmonizes well with the splendid robes of the priests when they perform mass."— Ibid.

1 Even so great an admirer of Napoleon as Mr. Abbott, indirectly concedes this point. Pope Pius VII., with whom Napoleon negotiated respecting his coronation, seemed to be entirely in his power. Nothing but fear of ridicule and denunciation prevented him from yielding more than he actually did to the emperor. His enemies nicknamed him Chaplain to Napoleon. "The Pope anointed the Emperor, blessed the sword and sceptre, and, as he approached to take up the crown, Napoleon firmly and with dignity took it in his own hand, and placed it himself upon his head." "Napoleon, who personally disliked all pomp and parade, and who arranged these scenes of grandeur only to impress the minds of the multitude, hastened to his room, and exclaimed impatiently to an attendant as he entered, "Off! off with these confounded trappings!"-Abbott's Napoleon, Vol. I. pp. 443-448.

of that which passes under the name of Christian worship, even among the more intelligent classes, is simply the perpetuation of the old idolatries. Great numbers of Lutherans, Jews, Armenians, and papists and Mohammedans even, are scattered throughout the empire. Each of these sects is allowed to enjoy its peculiar views; and persecution, in its more direct and offensive forms, is unknown. Yet no one can hold an office under the government, who is not a member of the Greek church; and it is a high civil crime for any member of that church to change his religion. The Czar is pleased with this state of things, since it keeps him in good repute for liberality, and possibly also because he is really disposed to be generous. However this may be,

it enables him to use not only the national church, but all other religious organizations, in carrying out his ambitious plans.

The Greek Christians are his main dependence, however, especially in those countries which he is still hoping to conquer; and hence, if from no bigoted motive, should any turn in his affairs ever make this large tolerance disadvantageous to the crown, the Greek church would be allowed to override every other sect.

The character of the Greek clergy is by no means immaculate. A French traveller, after having passed over nearly every part of the empire, and penetrated even to the centre of Siberia, declares that they are "ignorant, slavish, vicious, and drunken in almost an equal degree with the debased peasantry; that, although it is strictly forbidden for a priest to be seen to enter a whiskey-shop, yet they are not ashamed to send one of their flock to fetch spirits, nor do they blush to be seen intoxicated in the miserable villages of which they are pastors." This statement must be taken with some allowance for the fact that it is made by a Frenchman; still, it is undoubtedly true that many of the parish priests are ignorant and vicious. Yet there are noble excptions; and both clergy and laity are steadily improving as civilization advances. We should remember, in judging these things, that Russian society to-day is not so