and afterwards in aiding to suppress the revolt. In 1864, a Royal Commission, after long inquiry, presented an elaborate Report on the health and organisation of the army of India, both native and British, but especially the former: this Report has been the groundwork of many improvements introduced by degrees. It was a small event when, in 1867, a vessel not larger than a Thames steamer worked its way from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea, along the unfinished Suez Canal; a small event in itself, but a sign of a great change which was in store, in shortening by many thousands of miles the maritime distance from Europe to the East. Great cyclones, or devastating storms, a rebellion of the Santhals, a frightful famine in Orissa, a few disputes with dependent princes on matters of revenue and dignity, a little turbulence among the hill-tribes on the Afghan frontier, and the proceedings of Russia in those parts of Central Asia which approach India, in turn occupied the attention of the India government. In 1867, India was called upon to bear a share in the cost and operations of the Abyssinian war (an account of which is given in No. 3 of this Miscellany). In 1869, Sir John Lawrence's term of office expired, and he was succeeded by the Earl of Mayo, who soon afterwards held a meeting, attended with much oriental pomp, with the Ameer of Afghanistan at Umballa; the object being, not conquest or annexation, but to improve the relations between the two governments. November in the same year witnessed the complete opening of the Suez Canal; and the year 1870 afforded sufficient proof that the nations of Europe are willing to avail themselves of this short route to India, as a means of enlarging their trade. The home government, whether in the hands of the Conservatives or the Liberals, have in recent years adopted the policy of opening various sources of honourable employment to the natives of India, instead of confining the appointments almost exclusively to Englishmen. Sir Charles Wood, Lord Cranbourne, Sir Stafford Northcote, and the Duke of Argyll, who in succession filled the office of Secretary of State for India from 1865 to 1870, favoured this policy, and were assisted in adopting it by the viceroys and other governing authorities in India.

A FEW STATISTICS.

The whole of India-British, Protected States, and Independent States comprises nearly 1,470,000 square miles, with a population little short of 200,000,000. The Hindus are thirteen times as numerous as the Mohammedans and all the other religionists combined. The Queen of England reigns over 988,000 square miles of this area, having a population of about 160,000,000. The native princes govern all the rest, except two or three small settlements owned by the French and Portuguese; but even the so-called Independent States are in few cases really independent, most of them

being either tributary to, or in some way controlled by, the British. In every part of India the males exceed in number the females-one significant testimony to the prevalence of infanticide. The whole of British India, for administrative purposes, is divided into about 180 districts, each on an average larger than any county in England except Yorkshire. The public revenue varies from £42,000,000 to £48,000,000 annually-a great sum, certainly, to be raised by taxation; the land-tax is by far the largest item. Great as it is, the revenue barely equals the expenditure, so large is the outlay for armies and public works. It is believed, however, that almost every pound spent under the last-named heading will be reproductive eventually, in developing roads, railways, postal communications, telegraphs, irrigation, and improved culture. One dark tint in the picture is the existence of an Indian debt of more than £100,000,000; the interest of which must be paid wholly out of Indian revenues, the home revenues being shielded from the responsibility. The vessels that enter and leave India ports with cargoes exceed 4,000,000 tons annually; denoting a large import and export trade: more than three-fourths of these belong to the United Kingdom. The imports now far exceed £50,000,000 annually; while the exports in some years (especially during what was called the 'Cotton Famine,' due to the Civil War in America) reached nearly £70,000,000. In such years the settlement of the balance requires a large shipment of bullion and specie from England to India. The total exports to the United Kingdom are twice as great in amount as those to all other countries combined; and about the same ratio is observable in the imports shewing how vast is the trade always going on between England and India. If India sells to England a large quantity of raw cotton (£16,000,000 even in the year after the Cotton Famine had ceased), she, on the other hand, buys of us enormously in cotton yarn and manufactured goods (£14,000,000 in that same year). Opium is the next article in value among the exports from India, generally exceeding £10,000,000 per annum. Nearly the whole of this goes to China; the merchants derive so much profit from it, and the government so much revenue, that this trade is fostered in every way-whether or not it leads to 'opium wars' between England and China.

N the present day, we look back with a degree of wonder on the belief in witchcraft, which may be said to have formed an article of religious faith in every European country throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. A notion was universally entertained, that the devil and subordinate evil spirits, in pursuance of their malevolent ends, went about, sometimes in visible shape, seducing poor human nature. To gain their wicked designs, they were supposed to tempt men, but more particularly aged women, by conferring on them supernatural powers; as, for example, that of riding through the air, and operating vengefully and secretly on the health and happiness of those against whom they had any real or imaginary cause of offence. Such trafficking with the powers of darkness,' as it was technically called, was witchcraft, and, according both to the letter of Scripture and of the civil law, was a crime punishable with death. Like all popular manias, the witchcraft delusion had its paroxysms. No. 141.

I

It rose, existed for a time with great energy, then declined into insignificance. What was exceedingly remarkable, the frenzy never lacked victims: it followed the well-known law of supply and demand. As soon as witches were in request, they made their appearance. Any severe denunciation, followed by a rigorous scrutiny, brought them prominently into notice. Nor, what was still more curious, did the newly discovered witches in all cases deny the accusations against them. Many acknowledged, with a species of pride, that they had entered into a compact with the devil. They seem, on occasions, to have gloried in being the objects of so much interest, and hastened to confess, although death at the stake or on the gallows was the consequence. It must be considered as in some degree explanatory of this self-condemnation, that torture was always at hand to enforce confession; and as there was little chance, therefore, of escape after accusation, the wish to die on the speediest terms had probably no small share in inducing the alleged witches to boast of their mysterious crimes. In the majority of cases, however, there was stout denial; but this generally served no good purpose, and we are painfully assured, that many thousands of individuals, in almost every country, were sacrificed as victims to the petty spite and vengeance of accusers. At the height of the successive paroxysms, no one, whatever his rank or character, was safe from an accusation of trafficking with evil spirits. If he lived a profligate life, he was of course chargeable with the offence; if he lived quietly and unobtrusively, and was seemingly pious in character, he was only hypocritically concealing his diabolical practices; if he had acquired wealth somewhat rapidly, that was a sure sign of his guilt; and if he was poor, there was the greater reason for believing that he was in league with the devil to become rich. There was only one means of escaping suspicion, and that was to become an accuser. The choice was before every man and woman, of acting the part of accusers, or of being themselves accused. The result may be anticipated. Perceiving the tremendous danger of affecting to disbelieve witchcraft, people readily assumed the proper degree of credulity; and to mark their detestation of the crime, as well as secure themselves from attack, they hastened to denounce acquaintances and neighbours. Nothing could be more easy than to do so in a manner perfectly satisfactory. Pretending to fall sick, or to go into convulsions, or to have a strange pain in some part of the body or limbs, people were doubtless bewitched! Any sudden storm at sea, causing the wreck of vessels, was another evidence that witches were concerned; and so far did these allegations descend, that even so small a matter as a failure in churning milk · for butter, was a sure sign of diabolical agency. On the occasion of every unforeseen catastrophe, therefore, or the occurrence of any unaccountable malady, the question was immediately agitated: Who was the witch? Then was the time for querulous old men or women

in the neighbourhood to tremble. Long suspected of carrying on a correspondence with demons, they were seized and brought to trial. The accusations, as is now clearly understood, were for the most part spiteful, or wantonly mischievous. In making these charges and testifying to them, children and young women appear to have in many places excelled; the probability being that, besides a mere spirit of mischief, they enjoyed amusement from the consternation they were able to produce.

Strange how all this prejudice, imposture, and cruelty should have received the solemn sanction of the most learned and devout men clergymen of every degree, from popes to presbyters; kings, legislators, and judges; and private citizens of every quality and profession! The folly, while it lasted, was complete.

It only excites the greater horror to know, that the belief in witchcraft-essentially mean and vulgar in all its details-has been a reproach to religious profession; and that, while seemingly founded on scriptural authority, it really rested, in its main features, on the visionary superstitions of the pagan world. Historians make it clear to the understanding, that the popular fancy respecting the bodily aspect of the great Spirit of Evil is drawn from the description of satyrs in the heathen mythology-a malicious monster, with the hide, horns, tail, and cloven feet of a beast of the field, which roamed about in the dark or in retired places, performing idle and wicked tricks, and undoing schemes of benevolence. Sometimes, as was alleged, this great enemy of man assumed disguises that were exceedingly difficult to penetrate. It is recorded by an author of talent, that the devil once delivered a course of lectures on magic at Salamanca, habited in a professor's gown and wig. Even Luther entertained similar notions about the fiend; and in fact thought so meanly of him, as to believe that he could come by night and steal nuts, and that he cracked them against the bedposts, for the solacement of his monkey-like appetite.

That the delusion originated, to a great degree, in a misconception of the real purport of allusions to the so-called witchcraft in various parts of the Old Testament, is now universally acknowledged. By biblical critics, as we understand, the term translated witch, properly signifies a person who by vile deceptions practised on popular credulity, and by means of poisoning, accomplished certain wicked designs. Leaving,' as Sir Walter Scott remarks, the further discussion of this dark and difficult question to those whose studies have qualified them to give judgment on so obscure a subject, it so far appears clear, that the Witch of Endor was not a being such as those believed in by our ancestors, who could transform themselves and others into the appearance of the lower animals, raise and allay tempests, frequent the company and join the revels of evil spirits, and, by their counsel and assistance, destroy human lives, and waste the fruits of the earth, or perform feats of such magnitude as to