COMPOSITION.

Typical American maize has, approximately, the following composition:

Although certain varieties of "early-maturing" maize, or "sweet" maize intended for table use, when partially ripe, contain considerably larger quantities of both sugar and oil than do the ordinary ones, it appears from the many analyses which have been made in the departmental laboratories that maize is one of the most invariable of the cereals, maintaining, under very different climatic conditions, a remarkably uniform composition, and varying chiefly in the size, colour, and physical characteristics of the individual kernels.

THE MILLING OF MAIZE.

The flour made from Indian corn is known as "cornmeal." The simplest and one of the most prevalent methods of preparing it was to grind the kernels between stones, and use the whole meal, coarsely sifted. In the Southern States this process is still largely employed. A finer grade of the cornmeal is prepared by first grinding in the above manner, and then bolting to remove the greater part of the bran. Unfortunately, the meal thus prepared is very hygroscopic, and, as the germ contains a large proportion of the oil, the product is apt to become rancid and mouldy. Improved processes have hence been introduced during the last few years, and the following description is fairly applicable to the majority of them.

The grain is first broken, and the germ loosened in a "degerminator." The germ and the hull are then separated by means of bolting cloths and currents of air, and the remaining corn is ground between corrugated iron rollers. The resulting meal is again submitted to bolting and purification by currents of air, and the refined product is known as granular meal. The waste matter (hull, germ, flinty portions of the corn, &c.) amounts to about 30 to 35 per cent. The use of artificial heat during the processes ensures better results, and the meal keeps longer. Notwithstanding the improved methods of preparation, this granular meal has not found favour in the Southern States.

Apart from the methods of manufacture, there are two distinct kinds of cornmeal, distinguished by their colour-viz., the white and the yellow. These colours are due to the original tint of the corn, and there is probably but little difference in nutritive value and palatableness of the two varieties.

RELATIVE NUTRITIVE PROPERTIES OF WHEAT AND MAIZE.

Although so extensively used in America, there is a widespread opinion in Europe that the products of Indian corn are less digestible and less nutritious than those of wheat. This opinion, it appears, has no justification, either from the chemical composition of the two classes of bodies or recorded digestive and nutritive experiments. A study of the analytical data of the whole grain shows that, in so far as actual nutrients are concerned, maize is fully equal to wheat. The ash content of maize being small, there is no doubt that there is a slight deficiency in the mineral food employed for the nourishment of the body, but, as the cereals contain an excess of mineral matter above the requirements of the body, this slight deficiency may be disregarded. In its percentage of fat, Indian corn easily takes precedence over all other cereals, with the single exception of hulled oats; while of digestible carbohydrates (such as starch, sugar, dextrin, &c.) it possesses a higher proportion than hulled oats, almost the same as wheat, and slightly less than rye or barley. With the exception of oats, Indian corn contains nearly the same quantity of proteid matters as the other leading cereals.

In this connection it is interesting to note that manual labour in the southern part of the United States is performed almost exclusively on a diet of Indian corn bread and fat pork.

It is suggested by the Department of Agriculture that the systematic cultivation of specially selected seeds should be commenced at once, with a view to increasing the percentage of proteid matter, as the ratio of nitrogenous to other digestible constituents is, at present, rather low.

MAIZE OIL.

In the manufacture of starch and glucose, and of some varieties of maizemeal, the germ of the grain, which contains the larger proportion of oil, is extracted. From this germ an oil of considerable economic valuable is expressed, while the residue forms a nutritious food material, fully equal to that obtained by the expression of the oil from ordinary oil seeds. Maize oil is easily purified, and forms a light amber-coloured transparent liquid, without rancidity and of a pleasant taste. It has been used to some extent as a salad oil, and also as a lubricant, and, having good burning properties, as an illuminant. The coarser varieties of the oil are used in soap manufacture. The commercial value is stated to be fully equal to that of cotton-seed oil.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF THE STALKS.

Until a few years ago the stalks of maize were considered of little value for feeding or other purposes, although the blades of the stalks have been used as a cattle food from the earliest times. The proportions of the different parts of maize stover are:

The average chemical composition of the air-dried stover is as follows:

Maize stover, in one form and another, is now being largely used as fodder, and in some districts its use excludes even that of clover and timothy hay. The stover is usually finely shredded, as this not only increases the quantity which becomes available for food, but also leaves the manure in a better condition for spreading on the field. The pith is also removed from the stalks, as it is much. less digestible.

MANUFACTURE OF STARCH AND GLUCOSE.

The bulk of the starch used in the United States is made from Indian corn, there being only small quantities made from potatoes and cassava. The yield of starch is good, about 60 to 65 per cent. being available. In its preparation the grains are first softened in hot water, and then crushed to a fine pulp between stones or rollers. The pulp is now transferred to shakers, lined with fine cloth, and the starch washed through the meshes by means of a current of water; it is allowed to settle, and, the supernatant liquid having been poured off, the moist blocks are removed and allowed to dry. When the product is required for cooking purposes, it undergoes further purification.

The manufacture of grape sugar or glucose from maize starch is now an extensive industry in the United States, about 40,000,000 bushels of corn being used annually. The product known commercially as "grape sugar" is solid, and is employed as a substitute for malt in the brewing of beer and ale. Another product, known as "glucose," is a thick colourless syrup, which is used in the preparation of table syrups as well as for confectionery, and for adulterating molasses and honey.

MANUFACTURE OF WHISKY AND ALCOHOL,

It is estimated that more whisky is now made in the United States from Indian corn than from all other grains combined. The product is generally known as 66 Bourbon," to distinguish it from rye whisky. The process of manufacture is analogous to that used in the preparation of whisky from other cereals. The starch is converted into fermentable sugars by diastatic action, and the resulting mash fermented and distilled. A considerable quantity of alcohols belonging to the "fusel oil" series is produced, but these may be removed by allowing the whisky to mature a sufficiently long time. The distillation of alcohol consumes about 15,000,000 bushels of Indian corn annually.

The glutinous and other residues from the manufacture of starch, glucose, and alcohol were formerly regarded as waste material, but it has been found that, after careful drying, they furnish a cattle food, the nutritive value of which is fully equal to that of "brewers' grains."

MACARONI WHEATS.

IN a report to the Secretary for Agriculture of New South Wales, Mr. G. Valder, Principal of the Hawkesbury Agricultural College, points out that the soil and climate of the Cumberland district are eminently suitable for the cultivation of macaroni wheats, for grain and for hay. The prevalence of rust in the coast districts makes it desirable that the cultivation of these wheats should be entered upon by the farmers.

Mr. Valder, in his report, says :-For the past few years, the department has been experimenting with macaroni wheats, and last season two of the best varieties were selected and planted on a large scale. The result was most satisfactory, the yield being very good. Samples of the grain were submitted to Mr. Farrer, the wheat experimentalist; and he reports as follows:-"The samples are well grown, being plump and attractive. The trials have demonstrated that the wheats can be successfully grown in the coastal counties, where the rust pest in all but exceptionally favourable seasons causes the growing of bread wheats to be unremunerative."

Mr. Cook thinks that this should lead at no distant future to the establishment of a macaroni-making industry in Sydney; and to our getting this food, which when fresh is nutritious, and suitable for this climate. The imported stuff is often stale, and is made in a manner and amidst surroundings of which we are happily ignorant. He says that further experiments with the object of obtaining varieties which are specially suitable to our climate are being carried on, and for this purpose a number of new crossbred macaroni wheats are now being planted on the Hawkesbury Agricultural College farm. It is also intended to further experiment with these wheats for testing their suitability for hay purposes. The varieties grown on a large scale last season averaged over 6 feet in height, and this, coupled with the fact that the straw is more solid than that of the bread wheats, makes the hay made from them to weigh well. This indicates that these wheats should be profitable for the farmer to grow; as, if they are cut before they have gone out of flower, the beards which they all carry will be too tender to be objectionable. There are also on trial this farm a number of hybrids between bread wheats and macaroni wheats, containing different proportions of macaroni wheat bloods. These hybrids have been made for the purpose of testing whether or to what extent a dash of macaroni wheat blood in them is efficacious for adapting bread wheats to the adverse conditions of our coastal counties. Mr. Cook thinks the above and other experiments ought to make the Hawkesbury specially attractive next spring to all the progressive farmers of the county of Cumberland, and of the coastal districts generally. It should be remembered, the Minister adds, that of all those who visit the farm, none are more welcome than our work-a-day farmers.

EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS.

We have already, in a former number of the Journal (Vol. IV., March 1899), explained the object of experiment farms, and we quoted Professor Paul Wagner, Ph.D., Director of the Government Agricultural Research Station at Darmstadt, Germany, in support of the value of increasing the productiveness of soils by the application of manures, after manurial experiments with certain had been carried out, and the results accurately recorded and tabulated. We now give the Professor's methods of harvesting these experimental crops. The replies to the following questions are worth reading :

crops

HOW SHOULD STRAW CROPS BE HARVESTED, AND HOW SHOULD THE HARVEST WEIGHT OF STRAW AND GRAIN BE DETERMINED?

Straw crops should be cut with a scythe, but if the harvester is not sufficiently skilful to keep the boundaries well, a sickle should be used to cut the marginal rows. The cut crop is at once bound into sheaves, each sheaf immediately weighed, and as soon as the yield of any such single plot is duly recorded, an average sample of about 10 lb. is taken from it. The sample is placed in a clean sack, and a wooden label bearing the number of the plot is thrown in with it; the sack is then tied up tightly, another wooden label, with the number of the plot, is attached, and the sack put aside (if possible, out of the sun) and covered with cloths or sacks, to prevent the sample losing any moisture by evaporation.

When all the plots have been harvested, the various samples should be taken to a place where they can be accurately weighed, and for this purpose the contents of each sack are shaken out and weighed separately, the weight is noted and the contents returned to the sacks, which are then hung up to dry. After the samples have become air-dried, they are again turned out and weighed, and the weight of water lost is recorded, as well as the weight of airdried substance remaining.

Each sample is now transferred to a capacious linen sack, laid on the ground and threshed, and ultimately shaken out on to a metal tray, a yard or so in diameter; the straw is gathered up, the residue sifted through a sieve varying in mesh from to of an inch, according to the size of the corn. The residue

on the sieve is mixed with the straw; the siftings-that is, the corn and chaffare accurately weighed ; a proceeding which is also applied to the straw. The chaff is subsequently winnowed from the corn, and is accurately weighed, and its weight deducted from the combined weight of the corn and chaff.

In this manner is ascertained, with exactitude, the amount of dry substance, and the proportion of straw, corn, and chaff in the samples taken from the field; and the yield of the plot in straw, corn, and chaff, in an air-dried condition, can be easily calculated from the total weight of the sheaves, and the data obtained in these various weighings.

It is well to notice here how accurately and conveniently all these computations can be carried out, and to compare with this the labour and trouble that would be entailed in harvesting the produce from larger areas of land, such as of an acre, and the inevitable loss by falling corn in the field and while carrying and manipulating larger quantities. It will thus readily be realised how great are the advantages of the method here described.

HOW SHOULD POTATOES AND TURNIPS BE HARVESTED AND THEIR WEIGHTS DETERMINED?

Potato and root harvests present no difficulties. The haulms of potato crops are not as a rule harvested, as the yield is not constant, and they also have no particular signification. The tubers are carefully dug up and spread over their particular plot to dry and to let the adhering mould fall off. They are then collected in a tared and ticketed sack and weighed. A 20-lb. sample is then selected from the combined produce of the three similarly manured plots and placed in a ticketed sack, to serve for the determination of the mould still adhering, the amount of dry substance, starch, &c.

Roots are treated in a similar manner. The leaves are cut, weighed fresh, and a 10-lb. average sample taken from the combined crop of the similarly manured plots, to serve for the determination of dry matter. The roots are placed in a tared basket, 2 feet deep and 2 feet in diameter, weighed, and a sample of the combined similarly manured crops taken for ascertaining the weight of adhering mould and dry matter.

HOW SHOULD THE YIELD OF MEADOWS AND CLOVER FIELDS BE

DETERMINED?

Meadows and clover fields are cut at the usual period. The masses harvested from each particular plot are wrapped in cloths in quantities of about 140 to 160 lb. Mean samples of about 10 lb. each are taken from the duplicate plots, marked, carried, weighed, exposed to dry in a suitable place where they are protected from loss by wind, &c. When dry they are again weighed, and the yield of dry substance is recorded.

The harvested crop cannot be efficiently dried in the field or meadow, inasmuch as rain, loss of leaf, and all sorts of uncontrollable disturbing influences lead to errors that make results quite unreliable.

IS A CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE PRODUCE AND OF THE SOIL OF VALUE?

This question is to be answered decidedly in the affirmative, because, in addition to the weight of the produce, a knowledge of the total amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in the harvested product, and of the store. of these constituents in the soil, is absolutely necessary in order either to obtain a satisfactory insight into the manurial requirements of the soil, or to form a clear and decided judgment on the action of the manurings.

Therefore, samples of harvested produce should be sent to an agricultural chemist, of recognised ability, to be subjected to chemical analysis. Moreover, it is advantageous to send in a sample of the particular soil for the same purpose. The soil sample should be taken from the unmanured plot, and it is recommended to defer taking it until the end of the experiment-that is, until after the gathering of harvest-for then only can it be known whether a chemical examination of the soil is requisite or not. If any derangement, omission, or inaccuracy has occurred in the conduct of the experiments, or if the yields from duplicate plots differ too widely from one another on account of the inequalities of the soil, the whole experiment would, as a matter of course, be worthless, and there would be no need for an examination of the soil.

The sample is taken in the following way :-A pit 1 foot deep, with sides as straight as possible, is dug with a spade and spoon-shaped shovel, the earth removed is collected in a barrow, and a similar proceeding is followed at another spot on the same plot, and then two holes are excavated in the same way in each of the duplicate plots, so that the barrow ultimately contains the samples taken from six different spots.

The contents of the barrow are then carefully mixed, and an average sample of about 10 lb. taken, put into an unused sack and sent to the chemist. Particular care must be taken that a perfectly clean sack is used, and on no account must a manure sack be used for this purpose, even if it has been washed.

WHAT NOTES SHOULD BE MADE CONCERNING THE FIELD, PREVIOUS CROPPING, &c., &c. ?

Notes on the general condition of the soil, and on its cultivation, as well as information of the previous cropping, and of the period and magnitude of the last dressing with farmyard manure, or of any green manuring, or of the use of other manures in preceding years; all must be known in order to form a correct judgment on the results of the experiments. It is useful to have forms upon which to enter these data.