PART I

CONNECTICUT

COLONIAL BEGINNINGS IN CONNECTICUT

The schools of Connecticut became free in the last half of the nineteenth century, but to understand the development of such schools it is helpful to consider some conditions of colonial education, and to trace the slow growth of the movement and related movements to the time of the enactment of the free school law of 1868. The colonial period, from 1634 to 1776, a period of one hundred and forty-two years, was a time in which European traditions were transplanted, and also gradually modified. Some very important social changes occurred in Connecticut during this period. The colonists of Connecticut came, for the most part, from Massachusetts and were very similar in character and antecedents to the people of that colony. At New Haven and Hartford, settlements were made which had separate governments, and between which a rivalry appeared. The two were united under a royal charter in 1665. The government was similar, in many respects, to that of Massachusetts. At first, the town was the unit of local government. The general control was exercised by the "General Court" and governor, under the charter and a rather peculiar constitution. The "General Court" was an elective body, based upon a limited suffrage, having a combination of legislative, executive, and judicial powers. Religiously, the Connecticut colonists were Puritans. The church and civil government were united in many ways. The early pursuits were, of necessity, hunting and agriculture, but soon a coastwise trade grew up, and primitive manufactures appeared. The times were not peaceful. Indian wars, and the European wars of parent nations brought to the settler of Connecticut a share of the common burdens of the period.

The educational conditions of the colonial period are interrelated with church, local and general government, and economic conditions. Many of the educational conditions are of slight

importance to this study. Administrative conditions such as finance and control are very important. They will be considered in this chapter.

A very early record is that of the action of Hartford, 1643. This is an action of the town meeting. It records the employment of a Mr. Andrews to teach school, and provides that his income shall be sixteen pounds. This income is to come from tuition. The "townsmen" are authorized to pay the tuition of indigent children. In essentials, this is the type of support which later caused a school to be classed as a rate-bill school.1 Five years later, the town took action "that forty pounds shall be paid in the way of a rate to the townsmen for the time being, for carrying on the said work" said work being the keeping of a better school. (Barnard, Conn. Rept., 1853, 7) The action of the town of Weathersfield, taken March 12, 1658, provided that their teacher should receive twenty-five pounds, part of which was to be raised by tuition, and the balance by a rate levied upon the tax value of the town. (Ibid., 7)

A short series of town actions show school support and administration in New Haven. December 25, 1641, "It is ordered that a free school be set up in this town, and our pastor, Mr. Davenport, together with the magistrates shall consider what yearly allowance is meet to be given out of the common stock of the town, and also what rules and orders are meet to be observed in and about the same." In 1644, the town ordered the establishment of a "free school" to train for "public service in church and in commonwealth," (Barnard, Conn. Rept., 1853, 10) These two records raise these queries: (1) Are two schools meant, or only one and the same school? (2) Did free mean what we mean by it to-day-was the school or were the schools really

1 This very early record reads as follows: "That Mr. Andrews should teach the children in the school one year next ensuing from the 25th of March, 1643, and that he shall have for his pains sixteen pounds; and therefore the Townsmen shall go and inquire who will engage themselves to send their children; and all that do so, shall pay for one quarter, at the least, and for more if they do send them, after the proportion of twenty shillings the year, and if they go any weeks more than an even quarter, they shall pay six pence a week; and if any would send their children and are not able to pay for their teaching, they shall give notice of it to the Townsmen, and they shall pay it at the Town's charge; and Mr. Andrews shall keep the account between the children's schooling and himself, and send notice of the times of payments and demand it; and if his wages do not come, the Townsmen must collect and pay it; or if the engagements come not to sixteen pounds, then they shall pay what is wanting at the Town's charge." (Conn. Rept., 1853, 6) (Italics not in original.)

free? No definite answer has been found to either question. In 1652, the same town employed Mr. James to teach at an income of ten pounds from the treasury and the rest from the parents of the children. (Ibid., II) In 1657, action of very great importance was taken by the court of New Haven colony. It ordered towns within its jurisdiction which had no teachers to forthwith secure a schoolmaster, and provided that one-third of the salary should be paid by a regular rate, and the balance by parents of the children. These examples from New Haven reveal types of practices. In 1665, New Haven and Hartford colonies united, and the laws were the same for both. The Hartford code of 1650 became the general law of Connecticut colony.

The code of 1650 was the work of Roger Ludlow, an attorney, who had lived in England and Massachusetts and served as a justice in the colony.2 Because of its origin, it is practically a duplicate of the Massachusetts law of 1647 with reference to schools, and the provisions referring to apprenticeship are copied largely from the Massachusetts law of 1642 and from English laws. The provisions relating to education are under the captions "Children" and "Schools." The selectmen were given the duty of enforcing this law, and could call to their help two magistrates. Boys and girls were made subject to a period of apprenticeship training, or required to be given an education "to fit them for higher employments." A general education was to be required of all. Every town of fifty families was required to employ a teacher of reading and writing, and when a town attained to the size of one hundred families, it must also "set up a grammar school" to fit young men for the university. Neglect to provide such facilities made the town liable to a fine

1 At a court of elections held at New Haven, March 27, 1657, "It was propounded that the court would think of some way of further setting up of schools, for the education of the youth in each plantation, for though some do take care that way yet some others neglect it, which the court took into consideration, and seeing that Newhaven hath provided that a schoolmaster be maintayned at the townes charge, and Milford hath made provision in a comfortable way, they desire ye other townes should follow their example, and therefore did now order, that in every plantation where a school is not already set up and maintayned, forthwith endeavors shall be used that a schoolmaster be procuried that may attend that work, and what sallary shall be allowed unto such schoolemaster for his paines, one third part shall be paid by the town in general as other rates, the good education of children being of publique concernment, and the other two-thirds by them who have the benefite thereof by ye teaching of their children:" (Rec. Col. New Haven, 220)

He was sometimes referred to as Robt. Ludlowe.

of five pounds, "till they shall perform this order." School support was provided in the words "whose wages shall be paid, either by the parents or masters of such children, or by the inhabitants in general, by way of supply, as the major part of those who order the prudentials of the town, shall appoint." It is clear that tuition is meant in the first part of the sentence, but just what the other method was is not very clear. Were the selectmen those who "ordered the prudentials of the town"? Probably so. What was meant by "way of supply"? Was it not possible that these persons might "appoint" to collect more tuition, or levy a rate, or pay by an appropriation from the town treasury? Many features of this very important law remained in the school laws of Connecticut till the free school movement began in earnest.1

In 1666, a year after the union of the two colonies, the whole colony was divided into four counties, viz., Hartford, New London, New Haven, and Fairfield. At a court of election held at Hartford, May 9, 1672, grants of land were made to Fairfield and New London for grammar schools. The grants were in each case six hundred acres, and were to be used "for the benefit of a grammer school in the sayd County Townes, and to no other use or end whatever." By a similar action, like grants were made to New Haven and Hartford for the same purposes. (Conn. Col. Rec., II: 176) In 1676-forty-two years after the beginning of the colony-the fine for not keeping a Latin grammar school was increased to ten pounds. The same year, the colony provided that maintenance of the schoolmaster should be by taxation-"by way of rate," but each town might agree to raise the salary by some other method. (Conn. Col. Rec., II: 312) Two years later it was provided that towns of thirty families "shall have and maintain a school to teach children to read and write." (Ibid., III: 9)

In the county of Fairfield, a smaller community called Paquanake had grown up, and demanded a share of the school money of the town of Fairfield, of which it was an outlying community. The matter was taken to the General Court and Fairfield was authorized to divide its school money as desired by the citizens of Paquanake. In a quite true sense, this marks the beginning

1 Conn. Col. Records, I: 520-521, 554-555. Dexter, History of Education in U. S., appendix. Seybolt, Apprenticeship in Colonial New England and New York.