GENERAL SOCIAL CHANGES FROM COLONIAL PERIOD TO 1870

From 1776 to 1787, Connecticut was concerned with the war with England, and the establishment of stable government in the state and nation. Connecticut seems to have been very loyal to the colonists' cause in the Revolution. Two raids by British armies caused sections of the state much suffering. Under the Articles of Confederation, the state was burdened with import duties levied by other states on Connecticut products, had its share of trouble with a depreciated currency, and soon saw the necessity of a real national government. The delegates from Connecticut played a very important rôle in the Constitutional Convention in the compromise about representation in the national congress. During the War of 1812, the attitude of the state brought it only ill-repute, but the part played during the Civil War atoned for past mistakes.

From 1800 to 1870, changes came more rapidly. Intellectually, some advancement was made. A few leaders appeared, usually teachers, or college administrators. Publications increased. As early as 1850, there were forty-six periodicals of all sorts. (U. S. Census, 1850) In matters of religion, the division into sects begun in an earlier period continued, and some of the original denominations made great increases. The number of churches for the different sects, as shown by the census of 1850, was as follows: Baptists, 114; Congregational, 252; Episcopal, 101; Presbyterian, 17; Catholic, 12; Unitarian, 5; Quakers, 5; Christian, 4; Union, 4; miscellaneous, 3. This division of creeds made it quite impossible for an agreement upon an apportionment of school funds for religious teaching, or upon giving religious instruction in public schools. Slavery had practically disappeared by 1840. (See Appendix, Table I) The attempt of Miss Crandall to establish a school for negroes in Connecticut, her consequent ostracism and persecution, show that plenty of anti-negro sentiment yet existed. (See Johnston, Connecticut) In 1850, 90 per cent. of the state's population had been born in that state. This helped to perpetuate many of the old traditions, foibles,

and peculiarities. By 1870, illiteracy centered in the foreign element of the population. The percentage of children of school age was gradually decreasing, showing that the average size of the family was also decreasing. (Table I, Appendix) During this period, the industries shifted from a dominance in agricultural to a dominance in manufacturing. (Ibid.) This increased the problems of child labor, truancy, and woman labor, and caused a continuous growth of cities. In thirty years (1840-1870), the total population increased 73 per cent. This produced a demand for school facilities which the income from the School Fund and the Town Deposit Fund could not supply.

SOME LEGISLATIVE AND ADMINISTRATIVE CHANGES IN EDUCATION, 1787-1870

In evolving a school supported without use of rate-bills, the financial and administrative conditions of education assumed great importance. This being so, the general, legislative and administrative conditions will be described, and then the financial growth will be outlined.

Before 1800, several changes were made which should be noted. The first was the school law of 1784. By this the "Act for the Education and Governing of Children remains the same as in the revision of 1702; and the Act for the Appointing, Encouraging, and Supporting of Schools embodies the various provisions which have been enacted since the revision of 1750." County towns were each to have a grammar school. Towns and societies of seventy families were each to have a reading and writing school. The forty-shilling tax upon the thousand pounds valuation was retained. Inspection of schools was intrusted to the civil authority and to the selectmen. The selectmen, or a special committee, had the duty of financial management of the schools.

The movement toward decentralization of control continued. In May, 1794, school districts were authorized to tax themselves for the construction of schoolhouses, with the sanction of twothirds of the voters. (Laws of Conn., 1796, 375) In 1795, a law referred to societies as "school societies." In May, 1798, these school societies were granted powers which enabled them to organize as school districts. As Barnard said, by this law the society and district entirely supplanted the town as units of local school control. (Conn. Rept., 1853, 110–111) The society was sometimes co-extensive with the town, but more often it was not. Having its origin in the earlier church government, it now became a hybrid-ecclesiastical and civil. The general law was reenacted in 1799, and gives in lengthy detail the powers and duties of societies as school units. It continually refers to them as school societies. The powers included were as follows: Hold society meetings, levy school taxes, divide society into school districts, see that each school is supplied with a teacher, appoint

school committee and school visitors, establish schools of a "higher order" than elementary schools, receive and expend state school tax, erect schoolhouses, collect and administer other types of school support. (Barnard, Am. Jour. of Education, V: 116-119. Conn. Rept., 1853, 142-145) A provision enacted in 1801 states that whenever the aggregate "expense of paying and boarding instructors in schools in any society

shall equal or exceed the school monies of the society, provided by the State for the same year, such school society shall be considered as having fully accounted for such monies, although any one or more of the districts in such school society shall not have kept a school within the year" "and to draw such school society's money for the next year following." (Laws of 1808, 587) In fewer words, this was equivalent to saying that if a society expended the state school money that was all that was required; it would not be of great moment if schools were not maintained. This was an extreme form of decentralization.

Districts continued to secure additional powers. In the law of 1799, the districts were given power to levy taxes for erection of schoolhouses. (Conn. Rept., 1853, 145) In the statutes of Connecticut for 1835, the powers of districts are enumerated and are very similar to those of societies in the law of 1801. In 1839, the district was made a body corporate, and some other powers added to those listed in the law of 1835. (Laws, 1835, 460-467. Laws, 1839, 304) By 1801, the society had become one of the local units of school control, and by this law of 1839, the small district became the unit of school administration. In 1845, there were about 1,600 districts, covering 4,900 square miles, or the average size of a district was three square miles. This unit was very small in area, but had powers that overlapped those of the society. The town had very little power over schools. By the school laws in force in 1853, the district still retained the same powers. That year there were 1,642 districts. (Conn. Rept., 1853, Appendix, 8-11, 49)

In 1853, there were 217 school societies. Thirty-one of these had boundaries co-extensive with the towns in which they were situated, 131 included but parts of the towns in which they were located, and 55 included two or more towns. The law of 1853 defines the school society as follows:

"Every school society, established as such by the general assembly, and the inhabitants living within the limits of any ecclesiastical society, incorporated with local limits, or such proportions of the same as have not been specially incorporated, shall constitute a school society, and as such shall be a body corporate.

There were 148 towns in Connecticut in 1853. Their educational functions were restricted to those described under "An Act concerning Domestic Relations" which placed incorrigible children, and matters of regulation of child labor, in the control of the town. Selectmen had power to place such children out as apprentices.

This peculiar arrangement of local units of school control continued until 1856 when school societies were abolished, and their functions given over to towns and districts in towns. Union school districts were exempted from town control. In 1856, there were 153 towns, 222 societies, and 1,626 districts. Thus the law abolishing societies was one of simplification, and as far as the powers were returned to the towns, one of centralization. In fact, most of the powers of school administration were left in the districts, but they now became districts in towns instead of districts in societies. In 1867, a consolidation law for towns was enacted which read as follows:

"Every town in this State may at any annual meeting, assume and henceforth maintain control of the common schools within its limits and for this purpose every town shall constitute a Union school district, having all the powers and duties of a school district as now constituted by law

This provided a way for the gradual elimination of small districts, but it had little influence. Actual administration of schools by the towns did not begin again until the decade of 1890-1900. (See Willson, Town Management of Schools in Connecticut)

Reference has been made to union school districts. They had their origin in urban localities and manufacturing centers which demanded more and more local self-government. At first, special laws granted these communities powers of municipalities. Then general laws met their demands. They also demanded more control over their schools. In 1839, Hartford, New Haven, and Norwich, actuated by mechanics associations, petitioned that power be granted the districts to tax themselves, and it was allowed to these three communities. (Brown, Middle Schools, 315) In 1841, a general law provided that "two or more adjoining dis