It now remains to indicate the influence of this movement to secularization on the development of free schools. Whatever might have been the influence, it is very evident that by 18501860 Michigan had a system of schools in which many were free and in which no sectarian instruction could come. Free meant "without charge for tuition" up to that time; then it came to mean a secular school. Whatever may have been the merits of the Catholic definition of free schools in their petition to the legislature, the state did not accept it. Whatever may have been the merits of the claim that to deny state aid and cause children to attend a secular school could not be enforced, this was not given recognition. By 1875 a compulsory education law was upon the statute books as well as the free school law of 1869. The movement towards such a result was begun in 1837, when the system was established. As the state grew in population and resources, the same thing occurred that occurred in New York and some other states and the issue was fairly met. It did not cause so much strife as in New York, but it was met and settled. The first result was that not only was a free school a school without rate-bills, but it was also a secular school. There is another result worthy of notice. The well-defined issue of 1853 never came up again. The settlement of it was apparently decisive. This points out a third result. It prevented to a large extent the growth of petty differences in religion in schools. Even the State University did not have the severe criticism directed towards it that existed previously. Again, it prevented the dissipation of the school funds by directing them into a multitude of channels, all to no purpose. The Primary School Fund was small enough as it was, and if it had been divided, it is probable that its usefulness would have decreased.

In 1850-1870, the clergy in Connecticut again appeared to have some influence in school matters, but largely as individuals. Through all of this period many clergymen were school visitors. Clergymen frequently discussed matters of education in their sermons. We find the committee of the Friends of Universal Education in 1868 making an appeal to the ministry to help in bettering schools, and that later Secretary Northrop stated that they did advocate free schools. (See Appendix) The best evidence is the action of the Hartford Ministerial Association of 1867, urging and demanding reforms in schools, including aboli

tion of rate-bills. (See Appendix) Evidence is lacking to show a similar activity of the ministry in Michigan. The religious groups, including the clergy, then affect this movement in the following ways: (1) In Connecticut, in forcing the issue of secularization so that the income from the sale of the Western Reserve was given entirely to the schools; (2) in Michigan, in forcing the legislative committees, in 1853, to define a free school as a secular school; and (3) in Connecticut, by much influence exerted by the clergy through sermons and memorials for improved conditions including free schools.

THE INFLUENCE OF TEACHERS

No doubt large numbers of teachers in one-room schools never published any expression on the question of free schools. Yet, if one considers the various difficulties involved in collecting ratebills, from which part of the teacher's salary came, it is not easy to understand how they could ever favor the use of rate-bills.

In Connecticut the State Teachers' Association and various local organizations of teachers considered the matter from time to time, and individuals contributed articles to the Common School Journal favoring free schools. In 1851, a convention of school committees and friends of education, held at South Coventry, petitioned the state legislature for changes in the school system, chief of which were the abolition of tuition, and the entire support of schools by public funds and taxation. They gave a lengthy argument opposed to the tuition and exemption clauses in school laws, and declared these devices to be "impolitic, anti-republican, and suicidal." They reviewed the action of several states in using taxation, and submitted a proposed law for the reorganization of schools and school support. The petition was signed by one hundred and seventy-two persons. (Conn. Rept., 1851, 79-80)

In the same year, Camp, Barnard, and others discussed school support before the State Teachers' Association. More taxation and less tuition were advocated. Barnard said concerning the schools, "They need not be free, but they must be cheap." (Conn. Common School Journal, 1851, 57, 88) The visit of Commissioner Barney to Connecticut in 1854, and his advocacy of free schools has been mentioned. The Journal for 1854 contains two articles by Alfred Hall on "The School Fund and Taxation," urging complete reorganization of school support, and a return to town management of schools. (113-115, 162-165) In the same year, the editor of the Journal urged free schools in the following words:

"Keep them before the people, let us unfurl our banner, and bear it aloft with the motto 'Our Schools: They must be made good enough for the richest and cheap enough for the poorest.'

(Journal, 172)

An editorial in the Journal for 1854 very earnestly discussed school support, favoring taxation and abolition of rate-bills. 'The taxes for the support of schools must fall on property and not on the parents." (Journal, 1854, 315) A year later, the State Teachers' Association sent a memorial to the legislature asking for changes in school laws including abolition of rate-bills. These demands resulted in a codification of school laws in 1856, which abolished the school societies, and reëstablished the town tax, at one-tenth mill on the dollar. In the campaign for the Bristol Union School, Barnard, Camp, Philbrick, and Rev. Richardson took an active part. (Journal, 1855, 281-282) In 1847, Barnard helped in the Hartford campaign for free schools.

An article signed by E. F. S. in the Journal for 1855, discussed "How Shall Our Schools be Supported?" It was a strong argument against tuition and for taxation for school support. (Conn. Common School Journal, 1855, 229–230. See Appendix) In 1855 a speaker at one of the exercises of the high school at Waterbury, probably a teacher or school official, discussed free schools. The argument favored the establishment of both elementary and secondary schools on the free school basis. (Journal, 1855, 260263) In 1856 an organization of teachers and friends of education of Fairfield County, adopted the following resolutions:

66

Whereas, The development and welfare of society depend upon the education of its members, and as it is not only the right, but the duty of society, to educate the masses of which it is composed, therefore,

Resolved, That the State should provide for a complete system of FREE SCHOOLS by a direct PROPERTY Tax.

Resolved, That all friends of popular education, and especially the clergy, and editors and conductors of the periodical press, be hereby invited to present to the people of Fairfield County the advantage and importance of a system of FREE SCHOOLS." (Journal, 1856, 178)

The same year the State Teachers' Association adopted the resolution previously referred to, approving the proposed free school laws. The most pointed article appeared in the Journal (1856)-on "Charity in Education" with particular reference to conditions in New Haven. It also referred to the influence of the School Fund, the levying of taxes, and the consolidation into a union district.1

"First, the idea, dangerous as it is absurd, that the public schools were for the poor, existed in New Haven, three years since, quite commonly. This depressed the schools and prevented real advancement. The children of the

In 1857, Mr. M. T. Brown, principal of the Webster School of New Haven, made an address on free schools at the State Association. The remarks were laudatory and interestingly enough credited much to the Pilgrims of Plymouth for the idea of free schools; and urged that all schools of the state be made free. (Journal, 1857, 97-102) At the State Association meetings in June, 1857, and June, 1859, the Rev. Richardson made addresses on free schools, favoring their complete establishment. (Ibid., 1857, 211; 1859, 240) In 1858 the Association appointed two committees to deal with this question. One of these, composed of Messrs. Strong, Balcam, Brigham, Peck, and Allen, was to petition the legislature to abolish rate-bills and make the schools free. "Gov. Minor, Prof. Camp, and E. F. Strong were appointed a committee to prepare a circular on the subject of free schools.” (Ibid., 1858, 212)

This evidence shows that the organized teachers of the state were favorable to free schools, and that their attitude had some influence. In the final campaign they again declared their attitude in a similar way. They then adopted a comprehensive platform declaring for abolition of tuition, taxation for school support, high schools, normal schools, consolidation of small districts, a state board of education, protection and education for dependent and defective children, and agitation until these ends were attained. (Conn. Rept., 1868. See Appendix) The resulting legislation followed much the lines marked out in this platform.

wealthy never saw the inside of a public school, and so a common school came to be considered almost a public charity, and many parents, who had more of pride than of means, sent their children to private schools. Thus the schools lost what must be the support of a public system, the moral support of the community. What wonder that the children were rude and impudent who attended the common schools? The child will not respect what the father despises. No such idea prevails now. Our most intelligent and most wealthy citizens support, and send their children to the public schools.

Second, until recently the city was divided into several school districts, each independent of the other. The city of New Haven now comprises but one district.

Third, a direct tax is laid upon all the taxable property of the city, for the support of the public schools. It may seem surprising, yet it is true, that from the year 1835 to 1849, inclusive, no tax for the support of schools was levied upon the property of the citizens. The ruinous, and unwise policy of exacting an advance fee or tax from each child at the commencement of each term, a tax of from $.25 to $1.75 per scholar was adhered to, through those fourteen years of decline, and the tax thus gathered, together with the amount received from the State Fund, gave the schools an uncertain life, and tended to degrade the system more and more in the minds of all right-thinking men. (Conn. Common School Journal, 1856, 66, 67)