tricts might associate together and form a union district with power to maintain a union school, to be kept for the benefit of the older and more advanced children in such district." (Conn. Rept., 1872, III) The law abolishing societies exempted such districts. The same privilege was extended to towns by the law of 1867, described above. By 1870, local school control was exercised by towns, districts, and union districts.

Thus far, changes have been noted in local educational administration. Some should be considered that refer to state administration. In 1784, the state was levying a tax of forty shillings on the thousand pounds, for schools. This was distributed to schools through towns and societies, and later through districts and societies, and finally through districts. The state also demanded that all towns and societies of seventy families maintain reading and writing schools. The state retained the general law regulating apprenticeship and control of the poor.

Growing out of the sale of the lands in the Western Reserve, the School Fund was established in 1795, the first of its kind in the United States, and one destined to have much influence in the educational development of Connecticut. The state tax continued until 1821, when it was abolished, and the income from the fund was supposed to take its place. When the United States distributed the surplus revenue in 1836-1837, Connecticut placed its share in the hands of the towns, and required that a part of the income, later all of the income, should be used for school support.

In 1837, the state began for the first time to require school visitors to make annual reports to the society committee about the conditions of the schools. About the same time, the legislature made an investigation of the schools, which revealed many of their weaknesses. In 1838, the Board of Commissioners of Common Schools was created, largely as the result of the investigation and the work of Henry Barnard. This board was composed of the governor, commissioner of the school fund, and eight other persons appointed annually by the governor, one from each county. The board was authorized to employ a secretary at a salary of three dollars per day who should be the executive officer of the board, and who should spend most of his time arousing the people to the needs of the schools and advising localities as to changes needed in their schools. For the first time

societies were required to make an annual report to the state of the condition of the schools, the reports being made to the new board. Henry Barnard was chosen as the first secretary of the board.

Under this law, Barnard began his career as an educational official in Connecticut. In spite of a great tendency to indifference and conservatism, he secured the passage of a law to better schools. His activity and the changes proposed seemed too radical, and in 1842 the board and the office of secretary were abolished. No official was provided to take over these duties until 1845, when a new law made the School Fund commissioner exofficio superintendent of common schools. Accordingly, Seth P. Beers began to give some attention to the work begun by Barnard. (Conn. Rept., 1846, 13, 16; 1872, III) In 1848, the legislature directed the superintendent "to employ suitable persons to hold, at not more than sixteen convenient places in the different counties of the State, schools for teachers not exceeding one week each " (Conn. Rept., 1849, 30) In June, 1849, a new law created the combination office of principal of the normal school and superintendent of common schools. (Ibid., 1850, 83) Henry Barnard was elected to this position. The report issued by Barnard in 1851 reveals a very comprehensive plan for educational betterment. On January 1, 1855, Barnard resigned and was succeeded by John D. Philbrick. Philbrick took an active part in the movement for improvement, but left the work January 6, 1857, and was followed by David N. Camp who held the office until 1865. During the administration of Philbrick, some of the improvements previously advocated were enacted into law by the inclusive school code of 1856. Camp was active and earnest in the work of the office. In July, 1865, the legislature created a state board of education composed of the governor, lieutenant-governor, and four other persons to be selected by the legislature, one from each congressional district in the state. This new board of education had all the powers of the old board of commissioners of common schools and some in addition. It was authorized to employ a secretary whose duties should be the same as those of the superintendent of common schools. (Conn. Rept., 1866-1867, 153–154) At the first meeting of the board the combination office of principal of the normal school and superintendent was divided.

Mr. Camp was made principal and Daniel C. Gilman, secretary. Though Mr. Gilman held this office but one year, his report and his work were of considerable value to the state. In January, 1867, he was followed by the Rev. Birdsley Grant Northrop, who continued in office until 1883, and who was the successful leader of the campaign to abolish rate-bills.

While Philbrick was superintendent he employed three persons to travel throughout the state and lecture and advise on educational questions. Reaching almost every society in the state, their work had considerable influence.

The state managed the School Fund as follows: (1) it was under the care of the original legislative committee that negotiated the sale of the lands of the Western Reserve; (2) in 1800, a board of four managers was created for this purpose; (3) due to some evidences of inefficient management, the entire control of the School Fund was placed in the hands of a commissioner of the School Fund in 1810. This office continued during the entire period in consideration. Part of the time, an assistant commissioner helped with the work. Under this type of management, Mr. Hillhouse, the first commissioner, converted the fund into a growing, productive source of school support.

Some occasional laws referring to Yale College and those about the State Normal School complete the most important changes in the state educational administration during the years 1800-1870. Until 1865-1870, the state had assumed but very slight control over education. Penalties could be imposed for non-performance of duty by local officers, but records of such punishment are rare. Local control granted by state laws was predominant.

FINANCIAL CONDITIONS CONCERNED WITH

EDUCATION, 1780-1870

The support of public schools during this period was derived from the following sources: (1) the State School Fund; (2) the Town Deposit Fund; (3) local funds; (4) the town tax; (5) taxation by societies; (6) district taxation; (7) tuition and rate-bills; (8) various minor and relatively unimportant sources. At the beginning of this period the state levied a tax of forty shillings on the thousand pounds valuation for school support. Some communities had local funds, the income of which helped in school maintenance. Towns and societies could levy school taxes. By 1794, the school district began to secure taxing powers. The partial support of schools by tuition charges was more or less a matter of custom.

THE STATE SCHOOL FUND

The most important financial change, immediately following the Revolution, was the establishment of the School Fund, the first of its kind in the United States. Under charter grants, Connecticut claimed land that was included within the present boundaries of other states. When the original states ceded their claims to western lands to the United States government, Connecticut did likewise but made a reservation of land in what is now northeastern Ohio. About 500,000 acres of this land were given by Connecticut to citizens of the state who suffered from British raids during the Revolution. The remainder, about 3,300,000 acres, was sold to fifty persons for sums varying from $1,683 to $168,185, the total amounting to $1,200,000.

It was first proposed to use this money to form a permanent endowment for the support of the clergy; later, to support the clergy and the schools. The legislative and public discussions about the disposal of this money revealed a very strong tendency against the use of public funds to support the ministry. By act of the May session, 1795, this sum was set aside "and the interest arising therefrom shall be, and hereby is appropriated to the support of schools. It was further provided that

if a society by a two-thirds vote of its members asked to use the money for support of the church, the legislature had power to grant the petition of such society. The distribution of the interest was to be to the societies "in their capacity of school societies, according to the list of polls and rateable estate of such societies respectively," that is, upon a tax valuation basis. (Barnard, Am. Jour. Education, 6: 367. Also Conn. Rept., 1853, 55-109) The following changes were made in 1799: (1) The school committee of each society was required to certify to the state that they had maintained schools according to the law and that the "monies drawn from the public treasury by said society for said year, appropriated to schooling, have been faithfully applied and expended in paying and boarding instructors"; (2) in case of misuse of this money, the state controller was required to recover the money by suit at law; (3) a penalty of sixty dollars could be levied on any society that issued a false certificate of legal school conditions; (4) societies could establish "schools of higher order" (Latin grammar schools) and could use this money to help support them.

The interest accumulated until March, 1799, when the first dividend of $60,403.78 was distributed to the school societies. In March, 1800, the dividend was $23,651. The total population of the state was 251,002, and if 20 per cent. were of school age, the money would have equalled about one dollar per child. A school of thirty children would have received thirty dollars from this income and money from the state tax. Together, these sums would maintain a school several months, without taxes or tuition, if wages were as low as when we first get records of them.

The general plans of managing the State School Fund have been described. Before Mr. Hillhouse became commissioner of the School Fund, in 1810, a total of $456,757.44, or an average of $35,135.18 per annum, had been distributed among the school societies. During the fifteen years of the administration of Mr. Hillhouse, the annual dividend averaged $52,061.35, and the capital was augmented to $1,719,434.24. The loans of the capital were placed upon a safe basis, and many loans of questionable nature made before his term began were converted into sound investments. (Am. Jour. Education, 6: 325-366; 421–242. Also, Conn. Rept., 1853, 146) In 1810 the total population was 262,042, and in 1820 the school population was 30.59 per cent. of