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plus sensibles, y donne aujourd'hui comme alors la même réaction."

Dr. James Johnson remarks,* that Hippocrates seems to have overlooked the effect of the fever-producing effluvia of marshes, swamps, and stagnant waters, which, he adds, is the more remarkable, inasmuch as many of the fevers described by him, and the bilious remittent fevers of our own times, are produced doubtless by the same causes. It will not do to enter into the particulars of difference that obtain between the forms described in the epidemics of Hippocrates and those which we call continued fever of our own climates. I may observe, however, that after this subject having been duly discussed, M. Littré comes to the conclusion that

1. The remittent and pseudo continued fevers of warm countries differ from those of temperate climates: 2. That the fevers described by Hippocrates resemble the one, and, therefore, differ from the other. Remittent fevers undoubtedly differ from each other, and this difference is often made apparently greater by description. Twining instances that the Walcheren fever did not resemble that which raged in the Mediterranean fleet, described by Sir William Burnett; again, that the autumnal remittent of South Carolina, and of the countries in the United States where rice is cultivated, and which are more or less subject to annual inundations, or abundant periodical rains, differ in some respects from those of Bengal; but that, nevertheless, there is a general resemblance between these in their character, cause, and termination.

The effect of the state of the weather in modifying Fever.— We commonly observe that a fever which breaks out when the air is hot and dry, assumes the continued form; when the air is moist and suffocating, and especially when filled with exhalations from the soil, that it takes the character of a putrid re mittent; and that where the temperature is moderate and the

* The Influence of Tropical Climates, London, 1821, p. 23.

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air purified, the form does not differ from the regular intermittent (Clark).

Whatever the character of these fevers might have been, certain it is that many conditions of climate and morality cooperated either in producing, continuing, or spreading them. Many were the marshes and swamps in Greece, and hot indeed was the sun then as now; the towns badly drained, the inhabitants fond of excess, and perhaps not over clean in their habits. In fact, every element of fever has from time immemorial existed in Greece. The effects of climate could be often robbed of much of their severity were man resolutely to strive against, instead of encouraging by his neglect in the cleansing of his habitation and person, the very enemy of which he so bitterly complains. Imperfect drainage, bad water, close huddling of families in small tenements, and depraved habits, are powerful allies at home, and too frequently co-operate, as with a foe from without, with the malarious emanations from the neighbouring lagoon or marsh. That man has it within his power to modify climate, must be acknowledged by all who have read the history of colonization. We know that the human body, whether in health or disease, is capable of generating a fever producing poison: how careful, therefore, ought we to be to avoid those conditions necessary to such an undesirable end, and especially when we know that the surrounding air is in a state ready to receive the germ and bring it forth to perfection. We shall see in the sequel what were the characteristics of the climate of Greece, and how that it was not the only cause of the different diseases with which its inhabitants were afflicted.

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THE PESTILENTIAL CONSTITUTION.

We now come to a subject, which, perhaps, at this present time will greatly interest us, namely, "The Pestilential Constitution" (KaTáoraσis doiμwdns of Galen). We shall find on comparing the (κατάστασις λοιμώδης atmospheric phenomena grouped under the above title with those prevalent at different times, when this and other countries have been visited by plagues and other destructive epidemics, many interesting points of resemblance which, until placed side by side, would fail to strike the observer as features significant of a strong family likeness between one epidemic constitution and another. These features, modified, as those of the human race are, by climate, yet preserve their grand characteristic outline, so that it is not difficult to recognise them when we consider all the sources of their modification. As an introduction to this last part of my work, I shall briefly give a sketch of the more salient characters of the

CLIMATE OF GREECE.

The physical features of Greece present every diversity of character, and this difference of conformation between the several provinces was a powerful cause of the varietyboth in the inhabitants and the climate. I speak of Greece comprehended within its antient boundaries, and do not, therefore, confine myself to the limits of the present insignificant kingdom.

As a whole, the climate of Greece is mild; and if we consider the difference between the several constitutions pourtrayed in the "epidemics," and the many allusions made by Hippocrates in these and his other works, we must also call it variable, which undoubtedly it is. It is mountainous, and of course many of

its cities and villages have a variety of aspects; and hence it is that we find Hippocrates particularly explicit upon this point: for instance, he says, "Those (cities) that lie looking towards the rising of the sun are naturally more healthy than those exposed to the north, even should there be but the distance of a stadium (606 feet 9 inches English) between them. In the first place, the heat and the cold are more moderate; the inhabitants are more blooming in complexion, and not so subject to disease ; their voice is clear, they are of a more lively turn of mind and disposition than those in the north." "A city so situated enjoys, on account of the moderate heat and cold, a climate resembling spring the diseases are less numerous, and not so violent, and resemble those that prevail in cities exposed to warm winds; the women are extremely fruitful, and bring forth children with little difficulty." Again, in the same treatise, a little further on, he speaks of those towns that are exposed to the west, and which are sheltered from the east, but are affected by the warm winds, as well as the cold ones from the north, as very unhealthy; a place so situated has a climate resembling autumn, because the difference in the same day is very great between morning and evening. He observes that the inhabitants are apt to lose their colour, and that they have deep and hoarse voices.* The contrast here drawn by Hippocrates is remarkable, but we see around us every day the effect of aspect upon the growth of vegetables. Many trees and plants there are that perish against a wall looking towards the north; light is the great stimulant both to man and the grass to which he is likened, and whether their supply be curtailed by a wall or a lofty range of mountains, the effect is sure to be observed. Is not cretinism the effect of privation of light? Do we not see it endemic in those very localities which by their situation are shut out from the full light of the day, as Tolinelli remarks, "the shady sides of the valleys;" where, if the sun visit the unfortunate villagers, it is only to give them a sip of its streams of light, which is insufficient to

* Περὶ ἀέρων, κ.τ.λ.

counteract the baleful effects of its absence during the remainder of the day. Bronchocele prevails in the deep, dark, and humid valleys of mountainous regions, which are filled with malarious exhalations, and where the atmosphere is seldom ruffled by a breeze of sufficient power to remove the accumulated poison. In Switzerland it is most common in Vallais (Rowland). Were this valley beneath a tropical sun, it would be the seat of pestilence and death. As it is, it must necessarily be bad, for the high ridges of mountains which rise like walls on the north and south sides prevent a free circulation; while in the summer a powerful sun beats down into the valley, rendering it a focus of heat, and extricating from vegetation and humidity a prodigious amount of malaria (Dr. J. Johnson). In our own isles, agriculturists have observed how the direction of the slope of certain districts affect their temperature, and therefore influence the cultivation of wheat. The general inclination of a country greatly influences its climate; but as many countries depend for insular or peninsular position upon ridges of mountains, so must we expect to find that their general inclination is rarely, if ever, the same towards the heavens. As a general rule, the inclination of a region may often be determined by the course of its rivers, which, taking their rise in the cloudy regions of the country's backbone, fall on either side until they find again the ocean whence they derived their their vapoury birth. The general direction of the mountain ranges of a country is an important item in the knowledge of its climate, not only in reference to the diseases of its inhabitants, but its capability of bringing to maturity certain crops, which, like wheat, require a certain amount of temperature for their perfection; the British farmer is now fully aware of the necessity of acquainting himself with the aspects of his fields, and their influence on his cattle and his crops. In the extensive sheep walks on the Wilts and Sussex downs, shepherds are careful on the approach of an easterly wind, when their flocks are in a situation having an easterly aspect, to remove them at once, in order, as they say, to

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