8. To become a ruler is not in the power of every one, yet it is possible for all to become good men and useful citizens. 9. It does little good to preach virtue and temperance unless precept is enforced by example. 10. To be reproved by a wise man is better than to be praised by a fool.

Rule XIV. Participles.

A participle relates to the noun or the pronoun which it describes or limits.

NOTES.

1. A participle may be used as a noun in the nominative or in the objective case; as, "Reading good books promotes knowledge."—"The morals are corrupted by reading bad books."

A participle used as a noun may govern the objective case, and at the same time may be qualified in the same manner as a verb; as, “His leaving the city so suddenly occasioned much surprise."

2. A participle sometimes becomes a noun simply; as, "Running and wrestling were favorite sports among the Greeks."

In such instances it may be qualified by an adjective, but not by an adverb; as, "Rapid running depends upon much training."

3. A participle preceded by an article or an adjective is a noun simply, and is generally followed by the preposition of to govern an objective following; as, "That reading of the play was much admired."

A participle used as a noun may be preceded by a possessive without being followed by of; as, "Mary's playing the piece was not expected." "His crossing the swollen stream, was a foolish act."

If the active participle of a transitive verb is used as a noun, it is not preceded by an article unless it is followed by of; nor is it followed by of unless it is preceded by an article, an adjective, or a possessive: thus, "By the learning grammar our language is improved," should be, "By the learning of grammar, etc.," or, "By learning grammar, etc."

The meaning is usually the same when the article and of or the adjective and of are used, as when they are omitted, although such is not always the case, as is apparent in the following sentences: "He was ruined by burning his house."-"He was ruined by the burning of his house."

4. A participle is sometimes used as an adjective, and should be so parsed; as, “The sound of falling waters was heard."

5. A participle may sometimes be used abstractly after a verb in the infinitive mode; that is, without relating to any word; as, "To be always working would be ruinous to health.”

6. A participle may have a noun or a pronoun after it used independently; as, "His being called a wit did not make him one."

7. The perfect participle, and not the past tense, should be used with the auxiliaries have and be; as, "He has gone to travel in Europe, -not, "He has went, etc."

8. The perfect participle should never be used instead of the past tense to express simply past time: thus, "James seen him do it," should be, "James saw him do it."--"He begun [began] to read."

9. A participle should not be used if the meaning can be more elegantly expressed by the use of a verb in the infinitive mode, or of an equivalent expression: thus, "Exciting hopes which can not be fulfilled, is wrong," should be, "To excite hopes, etc."

EXERCISE I.-Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the note for each correction:

MODEL 1.—“By the telling the truth at all times, we may be trusted." This sentence is incorrect, because the article the is used before the participle telling, which is used as a noun, and is not followed by of; but, according to Note under Rule XIV., "If the active participle of a transitive verb is used as a noun, etc." Therefore the should be omitted, and the sentence should be, "By telling the truth at all times, etc."

2. "James has saw the whole transaction."

This sentence is incorrect, because saw, which is the past tense of the verb to see, is used instead of the perf. part. after the auxiliary have; but, according to Note under Rule XIV., "The perfect participle, etc." Therefore saw should be seen, and the sentence should be, "James has seen, etc."

1. Reading poetry properly requires a knowledge of the author's meaning. 2. The pupil who was a striking of his class-mate, deserved the punishment which was gave him. 3. The audience expressed the pleasure which they experienced in hearing of the lecturer. 4. The travelers had not proceeded far before they were overtook by a party of horsemen. 5. It is thought he would have went, had he been invited. 6. The English language is spoke in nearly all parts of the world. 7. Arnold done an act which will forever leave a blot upon his name. 8. John thinks he seen his friends pass by. 9. I would have wrote sooner, but the writing letters is always unpleasant to me. 10. After he had drank freely of cold water he felt better. 11. Some one has took from me all the materials which I had

for writing of the essay. 12. The teacher forbid them playing during the time set apart for the studying their lessons. 13. The work assigned would have been began but for an unexpected accident. 14. The using the rod too frequently leads to degrading of the mind. 15. He might have chose a profession which would be more pleasant to him. 16. No one done more for the relief of the suffering than he. 17. True courage is sometimes shown by suffering of ills without complaining. 18. A bridge was formed by a tree which had fell across the ravine. 19. Having written of his letters, he commenced a writing of his composition. 20. Although he done nothing criminal, yet his conduct was blameworthy.

EXERCISE II.-Parse the participles, the participial nouns, and the participial adjectives in the following sentences :—

MODEL 1.-"An opportunity neglected never returns."

Neglected. Opportunity neglected.-"Neglected" is the perfect participle of the passive voice of the trans., regular verb to neglect (imp. being neglected, perf. neglected, preperf. having been neglected); it relates to the noun opportunity, which it describes, according to Rule XIV., "A participle, etc."

2. "By observing the faults of others, we may avoid similar ones." Observing.—By observing faults.—“Observing" is the imperf. part. of the active voice of the trans., reg. verb to observe (imp. observing, perf. observed, preperf. having observed); it is used as a noun in the singular number, third person, and of the neuter gender,—in the objective case, being the object of the relation denoted by the preposition by, according to Rule IV., "A noun or a pronoun which is the object of an action, etc."

3.-"Reading is a very important branch of knowledge."

Reading.-Reading is.-"Reading" is a participial noun, in the singular number, third person, and of the neuter gender; it is in the nominative case, being the subject of the finite verb is, according to Rule I., "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, is in the nominative case." 4.-"The earth is clothed in living beauty.'

Living.-Living beauty.-"Living" is the imperfect participle of the intransitive, regular verb to live (imperf. living, perf. lived, preperf. having lived); it is used as an adjective; it can not be compared;-it relates to the noun beauty, which it describes, according to Rule X., "An adjective, etc." 5.-"To be always finding fault is a contemptible trait."

Finding.—To be finding fault.—“Finding” is the imp. participle of the active voice of the transitive irregular verb to find (imp. finding, perfect, found, preperf. having found); it is used abstractly after the infinitive to be, according to Note under Rule XIV., "A participle may sometimes, etc." 1. Having once lost the good opinion of our friends, it is difficult for us to reclaim it. 2. The king never surrendered his claim to the hunting grounds of the nobles. 3. It is our understanding which places us above the brute creation. 4. Thinking he now had an opportunity for securing possession of the coveted territory, he marched his troops across the borders. 5. The continual dropping of water will wear even stones. 6. Water continually

dropping wears even stones. 7. The horse's running was greatly admired. 8. The horse running, fell, and was badly injured by striking his head upon a projecting stone. 9. By the teaching of others our knowledge is increased. 10. By teaching others we are likely to increase our own knowledge.

For Freedom's battle, once begun,
Bequeathed by bleeding sire to son,
Though baffled oft, is ever won.

Canst thou minister to a mind diseased;
Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow;
Raze out the written troubles of the brain?

Rule XV.-Adverbs.

An adverb relates to the verb, the adjective, or the other adverb, which it qualifies.

NOTES.

1. A conjunctive adverb relates to the verb in its own clause and connects its clause with the word that the clause modifies; as, "Whither thou goest, I will go.-"Think before you speak."

2. An adverb sometimes relates to a preposition and its object; as, "Just before us lay the city."-"He perished almost in sight of land.” -"The ball struck exactly in the centre."

An adverb may relate to a clause or to a sentence; as, "Truly this Iman was the Son of God."

Certain adverbs seem also to relate partially to nouns or to pronouns; as, "We, not you, are wrong."-"Even the detective was deceived."

In all such instances, however, the adverbs should be parsed as qualifying the verb.

3. An adverb is sometimes used independently; as, "Indeed, I was not aware of the change."-"Yea, the earth itself shall pass away." -"Ay! Death shall feed upon his form."

4. The adverbs yes, yea, no, nay, and amen, in answer to questions, may be regarded as the equivalents of propositions; they then qualify no verb; as, “Will you accept my terms? No."

5. The adverb there, occurring at or near the beginning of a sen

tence, does not always imply place, but is often a mere expletive used to avoid abruptness; as, "There is a land of pure delight.”

6. An adverb sometimes relates to a verb which is not mentioned, but which may be readily suggested by the adverb used; as, “Out, brief candle!"-"Away, slight man!"

7. An adverb should not be used as an adjective, nor should it ever be employed to denote quality: thus, "The alone idea,"-"The soonest moment," etc., should be, "The sole idea," "The earliest moment,' etc.; "She looks sweetly,”—“It tastes bitterly," etc., should be, “She looks sweet,"“It tastes bitter," etc.

8. The adverb ever is sometimes incorrectly used for never; as, “It rarely or ever [never] snows in this latitude."

9. No, as an adverb, can qualify comparatives only; as, "The task no longer appeared difficult." Therefore no should never be used after or to qualify a verb understood: thus, "Will you go, or no?” should be, "Will you go, or (will you) not (go)?”

10. The adverb how should not be placed before the conjunction that; nor should as, how, or as how, be used for that: thus, "I am not sure how (or, as how) I can come," should be, “I am not sure that I can come."

11. In the use of the adverbs when and where, care should be taken not to employ them improperly for the pronoun which and its accompanying words: thus, "The hour when the train was due," should be, "The hour in (or at) which, etc."-"There was no family where he was not welcome," should be, "There was no family in which, etc."

12. The adverbs here, there, and where, which primarily denote position, may be used in common discourse for hither, thither, and whither, after verbs implying motion, but exactness requires the use of the latter adverbs; as, "Where are you going?"--but more properly, “Whither are you going?"

13. The preposition from is sometimes inelegantly used before the adverbs hence, thence, and whence, which, in meaning, imply this preposition: thus, "From whence cometh my help?" should be, “Whence cometh my help?"

So also from here, from there, etc., are incorrectly used for from this place, etc.

Since then, till now, till then, and similar expressions, are allowable, but are not elegant.