Rule XVIII.-Interjections.

An interjection has no grammatical dependence upon any other word.

NOTES.

1. An interjection may be followed by a pronoun in the possessive or in the objective case; as, “O my !"—"Ah me!" In such expressions the case of the pronoun is determined by some word understood: thus, "O my fate!"-"Ah! pity me."

2. Another part of speech seems sometimes to be used as an interjection; as, "Strange !"-"Back! false fugitive!" Such expressions are usually elliptical: thus, "(It is) strange!"-"(Go) back! false fugitive !"

EXERCISE.-Parse the interjections in the following sentences:-
MODEL. "O that those lips had language!"

O.-"O" is an interjection; it has no dependence upon any other word, according to Rule XVIII., "An interjection has, etc."

1. Ah! what a sight was this! 2. Hark! hark! the lark at heaven's gate sings. 3. What! wouldst thou have a serpent sting thee twice? 4. Oh! sailor-boy, peace to thy soul. 5. Ha! laughest thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn? 6. O that I had wings like a dove!

General Rule.

In the expression of thought, those forms and usages of language should be employed which will best convey the meaning intended.

NOTES.

1. Every verb should be used with its appropriate form and meaning: thus, “He set motionless," should be, "He sat motionless;""The meadows were overflown [overflowed] for miles."

The verbs most frequently misused one for another, are dare (intrans.), for dare (trans.); flee, for fly; lay, for lie; learn, for teach; raise, for rise; set, for sit; and the auxiliary shall, for will.

2. In the arrangement of verbs in connected clauses, the proper relation of time should be observed: thus, "The train started before

we arrived," should be, "The train had started before we arrived;" "The boat started after we had arrived,"-not, "The boat started after we arrived."

Care should be taken to use that tense of every verb which will denote accurately the relative time of an action, a being, or a state: thus, "I said, last week, that the event would happen,”—not, “I have said, etc.;”—“Ye will not come unto me that ye might have life," should be, “—that ye may have life.”

3. A verb in the subjunctive mode, present tense, should be used to express a future contingency; as, “Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him."-"If it rain to-morrow, I will remain at home."

A verb in the subjunctive mode, past tense, is used to express doubt, uncertainty, or a supposition, in which definite time is not expressed; as, "If the decision were just, I would not complain."

Lest and that succeeding the imperative mode, should be followed by a verb in the subjunctive mode; as, "Govern well thy appetite, lest sin surprise thee."

When the contingency is regarded as certain, or as probable, a verb in the indicative mode is used; as, "If the decision was just, there was no cause of complaint."-"If it rains, do not go now.'

4. Such expressions as had rather, had better, had have, had like, had ought to, had as lief, though in common use, are ungrammatical, and should be avoided: thus, "I had like to have missed the chance," should be, "I almost missed the chance."

EXERCISE.-Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the note for each correction :

MODEL 1.-"The officers appointed to enforce the law were attacked and compelled to fly."

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb to fly, meaning to soar (as with wings), is used instead of to flee, meaning to hasten (as from danger); but, according to Note under General Rule, "Every verb should be used, etc." Therefore fly should be flee, and the sentence should be, "The officers appointed to enforce the law were attacked and compelled to flee."

2. "When Bayard Taylor returned to America, he visited nearly all the countries in the Old World."

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb visited expresses simply past time; but, according to Note under General Rule, "In the arrangement of verbs in connected clauses, etc." Therefore visited, which is the past tense of the verb to visit, should be had visited, the past perfect tense, which ex

presses past time previous to some other past time; and the sentence should be, "When Bayard Taylor returned to America, he had visited, etc." 3.-"I had as lief not be, as live to be, etc."

This sentence is incorrect (or inelegant), because the auxiliary had is ungrammatically used as the sign of the past tense of the verb to be in the potential mode. But, according to Notes under General Rule, "Every verb should be used, etc." and "Such expressions as had rather, etc." Therefore had should be would, and the sentence should be, "I would as lief (or willingly) not be, as live to be, etc."

4.-"A robbery or a theft is the same in principle, but not in magnitude." This sentence is grammatically correct, but it does not express the meaning intended, because a separation or choice is denoted by the use of the conjunction or, while the idea of addition or of similarity is suggested by the adjective same; but, according to General Rule, "In the expression of thought, etc." The meaning would be better expressed by the use of and for or, and by changing is to are to agree with its two nominatives, the nouns robbery and theft; and the sentence may be, "A robbery and a theft are, etc."

1. I am acquainted with all the circumstances this long time. 2. You may go now, but return as soon as you have finished your business. 3. The Parliament had like to have been blown up by gunpowder. 4. A piece of charcoal or a diamond is proved, by chemical analysis, to contain the same properties. 5. The storm increasing in violence, he dared not proceed farther. 6. No sovereign of France was beloved ever so much as Henry IV. 7. The winter sat in early, and was more than usually inclement. 8. In this quiet nook he used frequently to set and gaze upon the landscape. 9. A pincers is sometimes very useful. 10. Give no more trouble than you can help. 11. Looking over the morning paper was seen an account of the damages done by the storm. 12. By laying too long in bed he lost the opportunity to go. 13. I should be pleased if you will accompany me. 14. Having gained the prize, it soon lost its value. 15. All examples in which there is a single mistake must be performed anew. 16. The sun sat in a cloud last evening. 17. He stepped up to the enraged animal, and, placing the muzzle close to its head, every spark of life was extinguished by its discharge. 18. I will be lost, for nobody shall help me. 19. When shall you leave for the country?

Figures of Speech.

A Figure of Speech is an intentional departure from common usage in the grammatical construction of a word, or in the application of words in order to add variety, strength, or beauty to language.

Figures of Syntax.

A Figure of Syntax is an intentional departure from common usage in the grammatical construction of a word.

The principal figures of syntax are two;-Ellipsis, Pleonasm.

1. Ellipsis is the omission of words necessary to complete the sense and construction of other words; as, “Bring (to) me the book;”—“I knew (that) he would come."

Ellipsis applies to all the parts of speech, to phrases, and to clauses. By ellipsis needless repetition is avoided, and language is rendered more pleasing and forcible.

2. Pleonasm is the use of more words than are absolutely necessary to express an idea; as, "I saw it with my own eyes."-" For the Egyptians, whom ye have seen to-day, ye shall see them no more, for ever.”

Figures of Rhetoric.

A Figure of Rhetoric is an intentional departure from common usage in the application of words, in order to impart greater variety, strength, and beauty, to discourse.

The principal figures of rhetoric are the following: Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, Personification, Metonomy, Synecdoche, Hyperbole, Apostrophe, Vision, Interrogation, Exclamation, Antithesis, Climax, Irony, Paralipsis, and Onomatopoeia.

Some of these figures, namely, those which apply to words only, are called tropes (from a Greek word meaning a turn), because the word is turned from its usual application.

1. A Simile is a direct comparison, commonly shown by the use of as, as-so, or like; as, “Be ye wise as serpents.”—“Her hair was like the sunshine."-"As cold water to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far country."

2. A Metaphor is the applying of the name of one object to another on account of some resemblance between them; as, "Thy word is a lamp unto my feet and a light unto my path."-"Nature was to him a closed book."

A simile is converted into a metaphor by the omission of the term

of comparison; on the other hand, a metaphor may become a simile by the use of like, etc.

3. An Allegory is a succession of metaphors, or of sentences containing metaphorical language, the whole forming a narration of imaginary events, designed to exhibit and enforce some moral truth. Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" is an extended allegory. Fables and parables are short allegories.

4. Personification is a figure by which inanimate objects, or inferior animals, are represented as having the qualities of persons; as, “The raven cried to the crow, 'Avaunt, blackamoor!"""While brighteyed Science watches round." "Has War trod o'er them with his foot of fire?"

5. Metonomy is a change of names, or the use of the name of one object for that of another to which the former bears some relation.

Thus, the name of the cause is used for that of the effect, or of the effect for that of the cause; of the container for that of the thing contained, etc.; as, "Spare my gray hairs [old age]."—"The country [the people] responded to the call."—"Embroidered garments are mentioned in Homer [Homer's writings]."

6. Synecdoche is the use of the name of the whole for that of a part, or of the name of a part for that of the whole; as, “My son, give me thine heart;"-that is, "thy affections."-"Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain."

7. Hyperbole is a figure by which, to heighten the effect, much more is asserted than can be true; as, "It is whiter than snow."

"That should move

The stones of Rome to rise and mutiny."

"Your words, they rob the Hybla bees And leave them honeyless."

8. Apostrophe is a sudden turning aside from the subject of thought or of discourse to address some person or thing; as, “Oh, Judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts!"-"O the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God!"

9. Vision is a figure which represents what is past, absent, or imaginary, as actually present; as,

"For a field of the dead rushes red on my sight,

And the clans of Culloden are scattered in fight."