with all our past impressions, if we would make out the truth which is common to them all."

2. A colon must be placed at the end of the expressions as follows, the following, thus, these, these words, etc., or of parts containing these or their equivalents, when they introduce a series of particulars, or a direct quotation.

Examples. "The means devised by man to communicate his thoughts and feelings are the following: gestures, inarticulate sounds, spoken language, and written language."

"Mr. Webster supposes John Adams to have spoken these words: 'Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote.'

In introducing a direct quotation of considerable length, the expressions as follows, etc., are often omitted; as, He arose and said: 'Mr. Chairman, I propose, etc.""

The colon is less used than it was formerly, a period or a semicolon taking its place.

3. Yes or No, when used to answer a question, is usually followed by a colon if the words following are practically a repetition of the question; as, "Can you solve this problem?" "Yes: I can solve it." Some writers, however, prefer the semicolon, and some the comma. The latter is in the interest of simplicity, though there are cases where the use of a particular one of the three suggested is best; as,

"Can you do this?" "Yes: I have often done it."

"Can you do this?" "No; for I have never learned how."

"Will you go to school?" "No, mother, not to-day."

When Yes or No is followed by a noun the colon is placed after the noun; as, “No, sir: I will not do it."—"Yes, my lords: I am ready to proceed."

The Semicolon.

The Semicolon denotes a degree of separation less than that shown by the colon, and greater than that indicated by a comma.

1. A semicolon must be placed between the members of a compound sentence when the connection is closer than that which would require a colon, especially when the conjunctions are omitted.

Examples.-"Brutes are governed by instinct; man, by his reasoning faculties."-"His confidence in the success of his enterprise was not the idle dream of a mere enthusiast; it was founded in reason and based upon science."

When the members are short and connected by conjunctions, a comma is usually the separating point; as, "The sword is mighty, but the pen is mightier."

2. A semicolon is used in a complex sentence, to separate successive clauses having a common dependence upon one or more principal members.

Example. "If I have laid down my premises correctly; if I have reasoned clearly; if I have proved my assertions; how can you with- ́ hold your assent?"

3. A semicolon must be placed at the end of a statement which, without any intervening word, is followed by the particulars referred to, when these particulars are separated by commas.

Example. "Mankind is divided into five races; the Caucasian, the Mongolian, the Ethiopian, the Malay, and the American." Instead of the semicolon, some authors here use the colon.

4. A semicolon must be placed before as, when it is followed by an illustration.

Example. "That often means in order that; as, 'Live virtuously, that you may die happy.””

The Comma.

The Comma denotes the least degree of separation. It is used, in general, to set off those parts of sentences which, though closely connected, still need some point

after them to mark the pauses or interruptions in the flow of words.

1. A comma is used to separate the short members of compound sentences, when the members are connected by conjunctions.

Example.-"There was a pause of death-like stillness, and the bold heart of Macpherson grew faint."

2. Co-ordinate clauses, and subordinate clauses not restrictive, are generally set off by commas.

Examples. "We trusted him because he had always proven honest."

Note.-Restrictive clauses or phrases must not be set off by commas from the words which they limit, unless words intervene between the clauses and the limited words.

Note.-A clause is restrictive when it limits a particular word to a specific meaning; as, “The boy who came was rewarded; the other was not."

Note. A clause is non-restrictive or circumstantial when it does not restrict a particular word to a specific meaning; as, "This boy, who is my son, came with me."

3. Inverted (or transposed) clauses, phrases, and adjuncts, must usually be set off by commas.

Examples. "When he came, I know not."-"Of all vices, impurity is one of the most detestable.'

When the connection is very close, the inverted phrase or adjunct is not thus set off; as, "In Rome he dwelt."

4. Parenthetical clauses, phrases, adjuncts, and words, that is, those clauses, etc., which occur between other parts and interrupt the connection, must be set off by commas.

Examples. "The clergy, as it has been before remarked, were the most intelligent and wealthy portion of the population."--"We may, generally speaking, depend upon this rule."-"This movement was, without doubt, demanded by public opinion."-"I shall, nevertheless, make good my promise."

Qualifying phrases and adjuncts, neither inverted nor parenthetical, may be set off by commas, when not very closely connected, for the sake of prominence or emphasis; as, "These seamen had become habituated to the storms of the ocean, by battling tempests in the Northern seas around Iceland, in their yearly fishing excursions.

5. Similar parts of speech, or similar expressions constituting a series, must be separated by commas.

Examples. "A great mind, a great heart, a great orator, and a great career, have been consigned to history."—" He was a man patient, sober, honest, and industrious."

6. A complex subject consisting of several parts which require commas between them, or one ending with a verb, must be separated from its predicate by a comma.

Examples. "Ranges and groups of lofty mountains, deep valleys through which rush rapid streams, and numberless lakes set in the midst of grand old forests, are the characteristics of this primitive region." "Whatever is, is right."

When a clause introduced by that, a quoted sentence, or a long infinitive phrase, is used as a subject, it must be set off from its predicate.

Examples. "That peace and righteousness shall ultimately prevail over all the earth, is the belief of every pious heart."-"Know thyself,' was the response of the Delphic Oracle."-"To seal their testimony to the truth with the surrender of their lives, was often the lot of the early Christians."

Words taken in pairs must have a comma after each pair.

Example. "The young and the old, the rich and the poor, the wise and the foolish, here meet on a common level."

7. When a verb is omitted to avoid repetition, a comma takes its place.

Example.—“Reading makes a full man; conference, a ready man; and writing, an exact man."

8. Words or clauses denoting opposition of meaning, or contrast, must be separated by commas.

Examples.-"Return a kindness, not an injury."-"Brief, but decisive, was the struggle."-"Did he act wisely, or unwisely?"

Correlative clauses, unless very short, are usually set off by commas, but words, phrases, or short clauses connected by than, are not set off, unless for the sake of emphasis; as, "The farther we advanced into the interior, the greater our difficulties became."-"Nothing is clearer than the truth of this statement."

9. An appositional phrase must be set off by commas from the word or the words which it qualifies.

Example.-"Cicero, the great Roman orator, was slain to gratify the revenge of Antony."

Nouns in apposition, except with the pronoun I, are not set off by commas; as, “Cicero the orator was pursued and slain."-"We consuls are merciful.”—“I, James Brown, do solemnly affirm.”

10. The following are also set off by commas:—

1. Words or phrases used independently; as, "My friend, you are wrong."-"Charles, farewell."—"To say the least, it was unfair.” 2. Absolute phrases; as, "Her health failing, her disposition became more and more gloomy."

3. An equivalent word or expression introduced by or; as, “Arithmetic, or the science of numbers, was introduced into Europe by the Arabians."

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4. Repeated words or phrases; as, Treason, treason, treason,' reechoed from every part of the house."

5. A clause introducing a short quotation, ending it, or separating its parts; as, “Truth,' said the speaker, 'must be our sole aim.""

6. Whatever clause, phrase, or word would occasion ambiguity, if not set off by a comma; as, "I have seven brave sons, and daughters."

[The limits of this work prevent the insertion of exercises upon the use of the points just explained.

For exercises, recourse must be had to suitable passages from authors, or to the extracts from their works, contained in the various "Readers" in use in our schools. These passages should be dictated to the pupils, and the latter should be required to insert the appropriate points.]