parts of Beverley Minster, and of St. Mary's, Beverley, are very fine examples. The use of a peculiar pointed ornament (a form of ball-flower) may be noted as unusual in the S. of England; and there is a tendency in the smaller churches to use the discontinuous impost, in which the arch-mouldings die into the pier. The group of Late Dec. churches in S. Yorkshire-Darton, Darfield, Royston, Penistone, and Silkstonedeserves special notice.

Perpendicular.-Campsall (with Perp. roodloft and inscription), Rte. 1; *Bolton Percy, Rte. 1; *York Minster, choir and presbytery, Rte. 1; St. Michael le Belfry, York, Rte. 1; St. Martin's, Coney Street, York, Rte. 1; Hemingborough, portions, Rte. 4; *Howden, tower and chapterhouse, Rte. 4; *Holy Trinity, Hull, nave, Rte. 4; Winestead, Rte. 5; Aldborough, Rte. 5; *Beverley Minster, N. porch and W. front, Rte. 6; St. Mary's, Beverley, nave, Rte. 6; *South Skirlaugh chapel, Rte. 7; Bridlington, W. front, Rte. 11; *Thirsk, Rte. 15; *Coxwold, Rte. 17; Brafferton, Rte. 18; Ripon Minster, nave, Rte. 21; Tanfield (portions), Rte. 21; Wensley, nave, Rte. 23; *Catterick, Rte. 24; Richmond, Rte. 24; *Methley, Waterton chantry, Rte. 27; Whitkirk, Rte. 27; *Harewood, Rte. 28; Skipton, Rte. 29; Kirkby Malham, Rte. 31; Giggleswick, Rte. 31; *Bolton-by-Bolland, Rte. 32; Kildwick, Rte. 33; Bradford, Rte. 34; *Halifax (parish ch.), Rte. 35; Almondbury, nave with inscription, Rte. 36; Wakefield, Rte. 37; Tadcaster, Rte. 42; Spofforth, Rte. 42; *Sheffield, St. Peter's, Rte. 43; *Rotherham, Rte. 44; *Ecclesfield, Rte. 45; *Tickhill, Rte. 46.

The choir and presbytery of York Minster were probably among the earliest Perpendicular works of importance completed in England. They greatly influenced subsequent building and design in Yorkshire. The great breadth of the chancel and the squared eastern end, with aisles terminating parallel with the retrochoir, are marked features of York, and recur on a smaller scale in many parish churches.

Of Modern churches it will be proper to mention St. Peter's, at Leeds (Rte. 37); St. George's, Doncaster (Rte. 1), and All Souls, Haley Hill, Halifax (Rte. 35), both ranking among the finest works of Mr. G. G. Scott; Baldersby, a very striking church by Mr. Butterfield (Rte. 21), and Escrick, F. C. Penrose, architect (Rte. 1).

§ XXXI.-The Monastic Remains of Yorkshire must of course be studied in connection with the churches, the architecture of which they in many cases influenced. Those here mentioned are in ruins. The churches of such monasteries as were retained are included in the former section.

Benedictine.-St. Mary's, York (Rte. 1), E. E.; Whitby (Rte. 12), E. E. and,Dec.

Cistercian. Kirkham (Rte. 10), E. E. and Dec. (fragments); Byland (Rte. 17), Tr.-Norm. and E. E.; Rievaulx (Rte. 17), Norm. and E. E.; Fountains (Rte. 21), Tr.-Norm. and E. E. (the most perfect in ground-plan and in actual remains); Jervaulx (Rte. 22), Tr.-Norm. and E, E.; Kirkstall (Rte. 28), Tr.-Norm.; Sawley (Rte. 32), little but

ground-plan and foundations, 12th cent.; Roche (Rte. 46), Tr.-Norm. and Dec.

Augustinian Canons.-Guisborough (Rte. 13), E. Dec., little except E. window of church remaining; Bolton (Rte. 29), Dec. and E. E. Premonstratensian Canons.-Coverham (Rte. 22), Dec. and Perp.; Easby (Rte. 24), Tr.-Norm. and E. E.; Eggleston (Rte. 25), E. E. and Dec.

Carthusian-Mount Grace (Rte. 15), Perp.

Cluniac.-Monk Bretton (Rte. 39), E. E. and Dec.

The remains of St. Leonard's Hospital, York (Norm. and E. E.), and St. Anthony's Hospital, York (Perp.), should also be mentioned. The various monastic remains have been described so fully in their different routes, that nothing need be added here. The ground-plans of Fountains, of Jervaulx, and of Sawley, have at different times been carefully examined. The original design for Fountains, and perhaps for Kirkstall, was no doubt brought from Clairvaux; and some foreign peculiarities are traceable, especially in the W. porch and front of the church at Fountains.

§ XXXII.-The Castles of Yorkshire deserve more complete study and examination than they have hitherto received. They are

Clifford's Tower, York (Rte. 1), Edwardian; Wressel (Rte. 4), Perp.; Sheriff Hutton (Rte. 10), Perp.; Keep of Scarborough (Rte. 10), late Norm.; Pickering (Rte. 12), Edwardian; Danby (Rte. 13), Perp.; Gatehouse of Whorlton (Rte. 13), Perp.; Gilling (Rte. 17), now chiefly domestic, but with Edwardian portions; Helmsley (Rte. 17), E. E. and Edw. II.; Knaresborough (Rte. 19), Edw. III.; Snape (Rte. 21),—now domestic,-late Perp. and Eliz.; Tanfield (Rte. 21), Perp. fragment; Middleham (Rte. 22), Norm. with Perp. outer walls; Bolton (Rte. 22), Rich. II.; Richmond (Rte. 24), Norm.; Barnard Castle (Rte. 25), Edwardian ; Bowes (Rte. 25), late Norm.; Pontefract (Rte. 27), Ñorm. and Edwardian; Harewood (Rte. 28), Edwardian; Barden Tower (Rte. 29), late Perp.; Skipton (Rte. 29), Edwardian and Hen. VIII.; Coningsborough (Rte. 39), Norm.; Spofforth (Rte. 42), Tr.-Norm. ranging to 15th cent.; Tickhill (Rte. 46), Perp.

Of these the Norman keeps of Scarborough, Richmond, and Coningsborough are of great interest; and nearly all retain portions which deserve attention. The Gatehouse of Whorlton is an excellent and most perfect example, temp. Rich. II.

§ XXXIII.-Yorkshire is not so rich in Domestic Architecture as might be expected from the great size of the county, though it contains some important examples. The best are—

Burton Agnes (Rte. 6), Jas. I.; Burton Constable (Rte. 7), various dates, chiefly Jas. I. and Chas. I.; Howsham Hall (Rte. 10), Elizabethan; Campsall Vicarage (Rte. 1), late E. E. or E. Dec.; Slingsby (Rte. 17), Chas. I. (in ruins); Ripley Castle (Rte. 20), Philip and Mary; Temple Newsam (Rte. 27), Chas. I.; Markenfield (Rte. 21), Dec., with 15th and 16th cent. additions; Bolton-by-Bolland (Rte. 32), Edwardian

in parts; Browsholme (Rte. 33), Hen. VII.; Bowling Hall (Rte. 34), Eliz. with earlier towers; Woodsome Hall (Rte. 36), Hen. VIII., refronted 17th cent.; Ledsham Hall (Rte. 41), Jas. I.

Castle Howard (Rte. 10), by Vanbrugh; Duncombe Park (Rte. 17), built from Vanbrugh's designs; and Harewood (Rte. 28), by Carr of York, must also be mentioned here.

RESOURCES AND MANUFACTURES.

§ XXXIV. Of the natural productions of Yorkshire, the extent and importance of which have assisted so largely in raising the county to its present position, the chief are iron and coal. These require a longer notice. Others which may here be briefly mentioned are lead, worked very extensively in Swaledale (Rte. 24) and in Nidderdale (Rte. 20); where it was certainly worked by the Romans, and where the lead-mines have probably never since been entirely neglected; jet, procured in considerable quantities from the cliffs near Whitby (Rte. 12); alum, found in the same district (an alum-work, at Sandsend, is described Rte. 12); the excellent building-stone from the Tadcaster (Rte. 42) and Huddlestone (Rte. 41) quarries; and the black and grey marble, found in such vast quantities throughout Nidderdale and Dentdale.

The staple manufactures of Yorkshire are woollen and worsted. Of these a longer account must be given.

§ XXXV.-Iron. The ironstones of the coal-measures have been worked in Yorkshire from a very early period. There is evidence that the Romans had discovered their value and had smelted them. The working of these beds-the black-band and clay-band ironstones of the coal-measures, which occur in thin layers associated with coal-seams, shales, clays, and sandstones-has never been altogether neglected, and until very recently the chief supply of English iron was derived from them. The most important works in connection with these ironstones are in the neighbourhood of Bradford,-at Low Moor and at Bowling. (See Rte. 34.)

These ironstones, which "partake more or less of the laminated or bedded structure of the strata with which they are associated" (E. Hull), are of course not so rich as the true iron ores of Lancashire, Cumberland, the Mendip Hills, and elsewhere. It is only from the ores that Bessemer steel can be made. But the largest supply is afforded by the ironstones; and about the year 1850, when many of the principal beds in the coal-measures were found to be rapidly exhausting, and some anxiety was felt in consequence (since the demand for iron was every year increasing), an enormous addition was made to our resources by the discovery of the "New Iron-fields of England," which occupy a broad belt of country almost from the shores of the English Channel to those of the German Ocean. The Cleveland Hills in the N.E. corner of Yorkshire form the most important portion of this belt, the whole of which is most carefully described in a paper by Mr. Edward Hull, F.G.S., in the Quarterly Journal of Science,' July, 1866. The following extracts are from this paper :

The entire belt "is formed of a range of hills with scarped ridges and longitudinal valleys, rising to the eastward above the plains of the central counties. In this range are included geologically the Cleveland Hills of Yorkshire and the Cotteswold Hills of Gloucester and Somerset; but it must not be supposed that the strata are equally rich in iron all along the entire range, although the representative formations in which the iron occurs may be present throughout. The range at several points, both in Yorkshire and Gloucestershire, reaches elevations exceeding 1000 ft. above the sea, and terminates in the coast-cliffs of Saltburn on the N. and those of Lyme Regis on the S. It is composed of jurassic formations, or speaking more definitely, the upper members of the lias and the lower members of the oolite series. From the base of the range the lower lias and new red marl stretch away in slightly undulating plains towards the W." . . . The ironstones occur in 2 positions: the lower at the top of the middle lias or marlstone, the upper at the base of the great oolite. "The latter, however, is almost exclusively confined to Northamptonshire; and by far the most important member is the middle lias ironstone of the counties of York, Lincoln, and Oxford."

The ironstone of the Cleveland Hills, like that of the Yorkshire coalmeasures, was not unknown to the Romans, and had been worked by them in several places. The monks of Rievaulx and of Whitby had also worked it; and it had also been quarried and smelted in Rhosdale in the 12th cent. (see Rte. 12); but it had been entirely neglected in modern times, and the vast extent of it was altogether unknown, when Mr. Vaughan, in 1850, made the discovery of the seam of ironstone lying under Eston Moor. (See Rte. 16.) From that time the ironstone has been worked in different parts of the district with increasing profit and importance. Smelting-houses have been erected in great numbers on either side of the Tees; the town of Middlesborough has arisen as the "metropolis" of the trade;" and in 1865 the whole district comprised 105 furnaces in blast, smelting very nearly 1,000,000 tons of pigiron."-E. Hull.

The vertical section of the formations as they occur near Saltburn is thus given by Mr. Hull.

Thickness.

ft. in.

30 0

150 O

0 3

12 0

12 0

3 0

80 0

"The upper bed of ironstone is alone worked. . . . It is of a greyishgreen colour, finely oolitic in structure, and weathers into rusty concretionary bands and nodules. . . . In general it is considered that 3 tons of the raw ore produce 1 ton of pig-iron."

...

"The Cleveland ironstone becomes thinner and is leaner towards the S., but, as the quality of the iron is good, it is extensively worked in the valley of the Esk near Whitby, the new line from Picton to Whitby giving access to the Durham coal-field. The stone is also largely worked along the sea-coast from Whitby to Redcar, and is shipped chiefly to the iron-works on the Tyne."

"The Rosedale ironstone is the richest of all the Cleveland ores. Its colour is dark olive green, it has a high specific gravity, is compact, magnetic, and polar. It contains from 35.94 to 49-17 per cent. of metallic iron, and is smelted by itself at Ferry Hill, but is chiefly used for mixing with the other ore in the Cleveland furnaces. In 1864 nearly 300,000 tons were quarried and carried to market by a special branch railway. Continuing the survey southward, we find the ironstone of the lias cropping out in the direction of Northallerton and Thirsk, and trending thence in a south-easterly course by Easingwold, Hutton, and Market Weighton to the Humber. The dip is here a little N. of E., and there are extensive tracts where it has not as yet been opened out."

Ironstones in the same formation are being worked in Lincolnshire, in Oxfordshire, and elsewhere. The quality of iron "is confessedly inferior to that derived from the coal-measures, still more to that from the hæmatites of Ulverstone and Furness; but for ordinary purposes and for mixing with the finer classes it is of great value. It is, moreover, supplying the enormous demand of the present generation; and looking to the future, there can be no question that the Middlesborough district is destined to have no rival in any part of the world."

The processes of iron manufacture have been briefly noticed under Middlesborough (Rte. 16) and Low Moor (Rte. 34), and call for no further description here.

(Dr. Percy's volumes on 'The Metallurgy of Iron and other Metals' contain the best and fullest information on the subject.)

The process of converting iron into steel, and the steel manufacture, has been described at full length in Rte. 43,-Sheffield,—and need not be again noticed here.

§ XXXVI.-Coal. There were in Yorkshire, in 1857, 347 collieries, producing annually 8,875,440 tons of coal. The Yorkshire coal-field is, however, only a portion of a great field extending over parts of the shires of Nottingham and Derby, and forming altogether the largest coal-field in England. (That of S. Wales is 153 square miles larger in area.) There are in Nottinghamshire and Derby 194 collieries, producing 3,687,442 tons of coal. The whole field thus supports 541 collieries, producing annually 12,562,882 tons of coal.

The eastern boundary of the entire field "is the escarpment of the magnesian limestone, with its subordinate lower Permian strata, which,