material, built their houses of stone, and there may possibly be remnants of these in the country, but by far the larger number of the private dwelling-places and tombs now standing date from the Christian period; this is proved by inscriptions, and by the fact that most of the pagan inscriptions are not in situ, but are generally found in later buildings. Christianity, according to De Vogüe, "penetrated very early into these regions, and it counted numerous adepts, organised in hierarchic order, when Constantine gave it peace; and accordingly, from the second half of the fourth century inscriptions are found pointing out the existence of a strong and active Christian society, building houses, porticoes, cisterns, hostelries, basilicas, churches, tombs, &c., in honour of the Holy Trinity and of the saints who were most widely worshipped."

GILEAD,

sometimes called "Mount Gilead," and "the land of Gilead," extended from the river Yarmuk on the north to the borders of Moab on the south, that is, to the Wady Mojib or Arnon. It would appear that at a very early period the Moabite territory extended far to the north of the Arnon, and embraced the "plain country" or Mishor, and south-eastern portion of the Jordan Valley, but that when the Israelites reached the country the Moabites had been driven out by Sihon, king of the Amorites, who was in possession and living at Heshbon. On the defeat of Sihon at the decisive battle of Jahaz the country fell into the hands of the Israelites, and was afterwards given to Reuben and Gad, but this particular district, the modern "Belka," still retained the distinctive name of "Mishor," or sometimes the "land of Moab," and the plains east of Jordan were also known as the Arboth Moab, or "plains of Moab." Between the Yarmuk and the Jabbok (Wady Zerka) rise the mountains of Jebel Ajlun, presenting a uniform outline when viewed from the west, but assuming a more prominent appearance when approached from the east, a feature on which Dr. Beke dwells particularly in his account of a journey from Damascus to Nablus through the Hauran. This district is "the half of Gilead" over which Og reigned, and which was afterwards given, with all Bashan, to the half-tribe of Manasseh; so, too, it was in this northern Gilead that Laban overtook Jacob where he had "pitched his tent in the mount," possibly not far from the modern Tibneh, and here a heap of stones was thrown up to mark the boundary between the two families, and called Galeed, "the heap of witness," possibly a play on the original name Gilead. To the south of the great chasm of the Jabbok lie the hills of Jebel Jelad (Gilead), the loftiest summit of which, Jebel Osha, overlooks the whole of the Belka, or elevated plain, that extends right down to the Arnon. The hills north and south of the Jabbok are well culti vated, and are in places covered with forests of oak, the descendants of the oaks of Bashan; the country presents some of the most rural scenery in Palestine, open forest glades with luxuriant grass, and a rich variety of wild flowers. The plain of the Belka is bordered on

66

the east by a low chain of hills which separate it from the eastern desert, and on the west rise a series of heights overlooking the deep chasm of the Jordan Valley, whilst its surface is dotted with isolated hills or tells, on which the ancient cities were built. In this southern half of Gilead were situated Mount Abarim, Mount Nebo, Pisgah, and Peor, which are mentioned in connection with the approach of the Israelites to the Promised Land and the death of Moses. It was this rich district of Gilead, with its abundant pasturage a place for cattle," that the two tribes of Gad and Reuben desired for their "very great multitude of cattle," and in which they afterwards led a pastoral life, to which there are several allusions in the Bible. It was at Mahanaim in Gilead that Abner rallied the Israelites after their defeat on Mount Gilboa, and that David took refuge when fleeing from Absalom; in one of the forests of Gilead Absalom was caught in the thick boughs of a terebinth, and through the same country our Lord passed on his last journey to Jeru salem.

Amongst the more important places in Gilead were Gadara (Umm Keis), which we have already noticed in connection with the Sea of Galilee; Gerasa (Jerash), a large town, on a little stream fringed with oleanders that falls into the Jabbok, which in the time of Jerome gave its name to the country. Gerasa is not alluded to in the Authorised Version of the Bible, but some MSS. read "Gerasenes" for "Gergesenes" in Matt. viii. 28. The town is mentioned by Josephus as having been burned by the Jews during the last war with the Romans, but it afterwards recovered, and during the reigns of the Antonines (138—180 A.D.) was adorned with those magnificent buildings, temples, and palaces, the ruins of which are the most striking and beautiful in Palestine. Amongst these ruins are those of a colonnade which ran through the centre of the city, temples, theatres, and gateways, many still in a good state of preservation. At the foot of Jebel Osha is Es Salt, a large town picturesquely situated on a partially isolated hill, the slopes of which are terraced for the culture of the olive and the vine; the inhabitants, of whom about onesixth are Christians, are hardy and courageous, and abie to hold their own against the marauding Bedawin. Es Salt has generally been identified with Ramoth-gilead, the city of refuge for the tribe of Gad; but its position does not altogether answer the requirements of the Bible narrative, and Jilad, north of Jebel Osha, and Jerash have been proposed as more suitable sites for the great fortress. Ramoth-gilead, being within the limits of Gad, must have been south of the Jabbok or on it, and from the part which it played during the wars between the Israelites and the Syrians we may infer that it occupied an important strategical position, perhaps commanding a pass leading from the Jordan Valley to the plateau; until, however, the country has been properly surveyed, it is impossible to come to any definite conclusion. It was at Ramoth-gilead that Ahab lost his life during the joint expedition, with Jehoshaphat, to recover the city which had been seized

by Benhadad in the reign of Omri; a second and successful attempt was made by Joram, who, however, was wounded so severely that he was obliged to retire to Jezreel, leaving Jehu in command of the conquered city. The anointment of Jehu as king over Israel, his rebellion against Joram, and sudden departure from Ramoth-gilead for Jezreel, where the last scene of the successful conspiracy was accomplished, are minutely and graphically described in 2 Kings ix.

South-east of Es Salt are the extensive ruins of Amman, situated on either side of a small stream, which has its source in the old town and flows through it. Amman is the Rabbah or Rabbath-ammon of the Bible, but it afterwards received the name of Philadelphia from Ptolemy Philadelphus. The ruins are amongst the most remarkable in Palestine, and include an immense theatre partly excavated in the rock, a mausoleum, odeum, temples, a church, a citadel and other public buildings, but they date from the Roman period, and no traces have yet been discovered of the presence of the Israelites. The whole place is now desolate, and only visited by wandering Bedawin with their flocks, recalling the prophecy of Ezekiel, "I will make Rabbah a stable for camels, and the Ammonites a couching-place for flocks" (xxv. 5). Rabbah is the only city of the Ammonites mentioned in the Bible, and its chief interest is derived from the long siege which it sustained during the reign of David; at the end, apparently, of about two years the lower town was taken by Joab; but the citadel remained, and the honour of its capture was reserved for David himself. The importance attached to the operations against Rabbah, is attested by the unusual fact of the presence of the ark with the army, and the length of the siege shows that it must have been a place of very great strength. During the period between the Old and New Testaments the town became of great importance, and, as we gather from Josephus, was the scene of several contests.

66

To the south-west of Amman is Hesban (Heshbon), the royal city of Sihon, king of the Amorites, standing on a hill which rises above the general level of the plateau. The existing ruins are of little interest, but there are numerous cisterns, and a large reservoir, which may call to mind the passage in the Song of Solomon, "Thine eyes are like the fish-pools in Heshbon." The fountain of Hesban, in the valley of the same name, is described by Captain Warren as a delightful spot, a large volume of water rushing straight out of the side of the rock." In the immediate vicinity of Hesban are the ruins of El Al (Elealeh), Main (Baalmeon), and Medeba (Madaba); but the place of chief interest is, undoubtedly, Jebel Nebbeh, which, in all probability, is the Mount Nebo of the Bible. Mount Nebo is only mentioned twice in Scripture (Deut. xxxii. 49; xxxiv. 1), but in both these passages its position is so distinctly defined as being " over against Jericho," that it is extraordinary to find its true position unknown until the name was recovered by Mons. de Sauley, in 1853. Since that date it has been visited by the Duc

66

de Luynes, Dr. Tristram, Captain Warren, and many others, and a complete survey has recently been made of the district by the American Palestine Exploration Fund; unfortunately, this has not yet been published, and we must attempt to reconcile the very discordant accounts of the view from the summit which have been given by different travellers. Jebel Nebbeh is a hill on the edge of the swelling ground at the western extremity of the Belka, and to the south-west of Hesban; its elevation is 2,670 feet above the sea, nearly the same as that of the Mount of Olives; and though the ground to the north-east is some two hundred feet higher, there is no other hill of equal height overlooking the Jordan valley till we come to Jebel Osha on the north, and Jebel Attarus on the south, neither of which can by any possibility be said to be over against Jericho." The view embraces the whole western range from far south of Hebron to the mountains of Galilee, and the Jordan valley as far as Kurn Surtabeh; to the north the view is obstructed by the mountains of Gilead, but according to Dr. Tristram, the mountains of the Hauran can be seen through a depression in these hills, and he believes that on a clear day the summit of Hermon might be seen rising over the Jordan; to the north-east there is higher ground, and to the south Jebel Attarus closes the landscape. In Deut. xxxiv. 2, "the utmost sea is mentioned as the limit of Moses' view; this appears to refer to the Mediterranean, and it is just possible, though it has not been accurately ascertained, that under favourable circumstances the sea may be seen through the great depression of the plain of Esdraelon. On the northern slopes of Jebel Nebbeh are the ruins of Nebbeh (Nebo), a town taken possession of and rebuilt by the tribe of Reuben, which is mentioned in connection with Heshbon, Elealeh, and Baal-meon, places that are not far distant from it. Dr. Robinson gives the name in his list of places in the Belka, and indicates the position in which it should be looked for by future travellers. Captain Warren describes the ruins as "a confused heap of stones, 300 yards from east to west, and 100 from north to south." In a ravine forming the northern boundary of Jebel Nebbeh are the springs of Moses, "Ayun Musa," gushing out of the limestone rock, and running down the ravine in a succession of cascades from twenty to thirty feet high; up this ravine Moses may possibly have passed on his way to Mount Nebo, and here too may be the valley over against Beth-peor" in which he was buried. No traces of the name Pisgah have been found, but it would appear to have been the district or mountain, elsewhere called the mountain of Abarim, of which Nebo was the "head" or culminating point. There is another spot mentioned in connection with Pisgah which has not yet been identified, "the Peor," from whence Balaam saw Israel abiding according to their tribes;" this may probably be looked for on one of the spurs of the eastern hills to the north of Jebel Nebbeh, which commands a better view of the plain of Jordan (Seisaban) than that obtained from Mount Nebo.

66

To the south-east of Hesban, Dr. Tristram discovered

the ruins of the important Roman town of Ziza, one of the chief military stations of the province, at which the Dalmatian cavalry were quartered; and to the cast of this the remains of the magnificent palace of Mashita, its walls covered with elaborate and beautiful carving, hardly injured by time or man. "Every inch of their surface and all the interstices are carved with fretted work, representing animals, fruit, and foliage, in endless variety." "There are upwards of fifty animals in all sorts of attitudes, but generally drinking together on opposite sides of the same vase. Lions, winged lions, buffaloes, gazelle, panthers, lynx, men; in one case a man with a basket of fruit, in another a man's head with a dog below; peacocks, partridges, parrots, and other birds." This grand palace Mr. Fergusson refers "to the Sassanian dynasty of Persian kings, and to the history of Chosroes II.," fixing the date to be 614 A.D. Almost due south of Jebel Nebbeh, and overlooking the Dead Sea, is Jebel Attarus, on the slopes of which are the ruins of Attarus, the Ataroth built by the children of Gad in the land of Gilead (Numb. xxxii. 34); and about three miles to the south-east are those of Kureiyat, situated "on sister hillocks, half a mile apart," representing either the Kerioth or Kiriathaim of Jer. xlviii. 23, 24, towns in the plain country named in the denunciations against Moab. Still further to the south-east are the ruins of Dhiban (Dibon), mentioned in Numb. xxxii. 3, 34, and also in Jer. xlviii. 18, "Thou daughter that dost inhabit Dibon, come down from thy glory, and sit in thirst; for the spoiler of Moab shall come upon thee, and he shall destroy thy strongholds." Like so many other Moabite towns, Dibon was built on two adjacent knolls locally called harith, a word identical with the Hebrew haresh or haraseth, which had much puzzled commentators until Professor Palmer found this explanation of the difficulty in the present local idiom of the country. A wall runs round the town, and just within the gateway the famous Moabite stone, containing an inscription of King Mesha, was found. The extreme importance of the Moabite stone cannot be exaggerated, but it will be sufficient to mention here that the inscription gives a brief account of King Mesha and his father, tells of the victorious campaigns of the former, and contains a record of the rebuilding of certain cities in Moab; among the names which appear are Jehovah, Israel, Omri, Chemosh, Dibon, Baal-meon, Horonaim, Kerioth, &c. A short distance south of Dhiban, on the "brink" of the torrent Arnon (Wady Mojib), are the featureless ruins of Araar, the ancient Aroer, the southern point of the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites, and afterwards of the tribe of Reuben.

MOAB.

The Wady Mojib, or Arnon, which formed the boundary between Moab and the Amorites, and at a later period between Moab and Israel, is a tremendous ravine, more than 2,000 feet deep, which cuts its way through the plateau, and discharges its waters into the Dead Sea. The district south of the Arnon is

termed in Ruth i. 1, 2, "the country of Moab," and may be considered as Moab proper; but, as we have previously explained, Moab extended at one period much further to the north, over the district called the land of Moab" in Deut. i. 5, and embraced the plain of Seisaban, north of the Dead Sea, termed in the Bible Arboth Moab, or the plain of Shittim. On the south, Moab extended to the borders of the Wady Sidiyeh, or Seil Gharabi, down which runs a fine stream, which is probably the brook Zered, that lay between Moab and Edom, and was the proper term of the Israelites' wandering. The character of this portion of the country is very similar to that north of Wady Mojib, an elevated plateau, with a rich soil, providing abundant pasturage for the flocks of the Bedawin, as it formerly did for those of the Moabites, whose pastoral character may be inferred from the fact that the country paid a tribute to Ahab of 100,000 rams, and the same number of wethers with their fleeces. The relations between the Moabites and Israelites appear to have been of a mixed character; the story of Ruth points to a friendly intercourse between the two peoples at that time, and at a later period we find David's father and mother dwelling with the king of Moab "all the while that David was in the hold" (1 Sam. xxii. 4); but with the exception of these instances, the relations were hostile rather than amicable. One Moabite king, Eglon, reigned at Jericho for eighteen years, when he was killed by Ehud (Judg. iii.). Saul at the commencement of his reign made a successful expedition against Moab, and David “smote Moab, and measured them with a line, casting them to the ground" (2 Sam. viii. 2). We have already, in the article " Judæa," alluded to the Moabite invasion of Judæa during the reign of Jehoshaphat, which ended so disastrously to the invaders; this appears to have been followed by the joint expedition of Jehoshaphat, Jehoram, and the king of Edom, who, passing round the southern end of the Dead Sea, overran the country, throwing down the walls of the towns, laying waste the land, stopping the wells, and felling all the trees (2 Kings iii. 6-27). In the time of Isaiah, however, Moab seems to have regained 'its former prosperity, and to have obtained possession of many of the towns which at one time belonged to Reuben.

To the south of Wady Mojib are the ruins of Shihan, in which the name of Sihon is preserved, and perhaps some memory of the great battle on the banks of the Arnon. About ten miles to the south are the ruins of Rabba, the ancient Ar or Ar of Moab, one of the principal places of Moab. The ruins are chiefly of the Roman epoch, but there are also many remains of the old Moabite city. Still further to the south is Kerak, the Kir Moab of Isa. xv. 1, and the Kir-haresh, Hareseth, or Haraseth of other passages in the Bible. The position of Kerak must have marked it out from the earliest times as a suitable site for a great fortress The platform on which the town stands is triangular in shape, and protected on two sides by great ravines, more than 1,000 feet deep, with steep, rugged sides, whilst on the third it is connected with the en