reasons," the species, "the mind of man," and "thinking substance," are all the terms of this syllogism.

Secondly. Whatever thinks is immaterial;

The human mind thinks;

Therefore, the human mind is immaterial.

Analysis. "Immaterial," the third idea of the train, and the major term of this syllogism, is compared first with the genus, "whatever thinks," and next with the species, "the human mind," and is found to agree with both.

Thirdly.

Whatever is immaterial is indissoluble;

The mind of man is immaterial;

Therefore, the mind of man is indissoluble.

Analysis. "Indissoluble," the fourth idea of the train, and the major term of this syllogism, is compared first with the genus, "whatever is immaterial," and next with the species, "the mind of man," and is found to agree with both.

Fourthly. Whatever is indissoluble is immortal;
The mind of man is indissoluble;

Therefore, the mind of man is immortal.

Analysis. "Immortal," the last idea of the train, and the major term of this syllogism, is compared first with the genus, "whatever is indissoluble," and then with the species, "the mind of man," and is found to agree with both.

585. From these examples it appears, that the major term of every syllogism is one of the ideas of the train, beginning with the second; that the minor term of every syllogism is the first idea of the train; and that the middle term of every syllogism is a genus of the minor. The syllogisms which we have formed are all of the first figure; but this circumstance is no objection against the remarks which we have to make, because all the other figures and modes proceed on the same principle; namely, the comparison of the major term, first, with the genus of the minor, and, next, with the minor as a species; or the syllogisms of the other figures may be reduced to those of the first in which these conditions take place.

586. What, then, is the mystery of this mighty syllogistic art, which has so long engaged the attention of learned men, and is still accounted by many of that description to contain something_meritorious, or to be an analysis of the art of reasoning? It is no more than this, "Whatever agrees with any genus, will agree with every species of that genus; or whatever disagrees with any genus, will disagree with every species of that genus." If this be the principle of the art, can we wonder at the self-evidence of all the conclusions of

all its syllogisms, or that it never gratified science or business with the discovery of any useful truth?

587. When we reflect how genus and species are formed, it is impossible but what agrees or disagrees with the one, must agree or disagree with the other. What is a genus? It is a collection of all the qualities common to the species it includes. What agrees then with the common qualities of any species, must agree with the species itself, as far as these qualities extend; and syllogism carries the agreement of the major term with the minor and middle terms no farther than these qualities. What agrees with the genus must agree with the species; it is only an agreement with the same thing in different situations; the major term agrees or disagrees with perfectly the same qualities in the genus with which it agrees or disagrees in the species.

Corol. Hence it appears, that after finding the agreement of the major term with the genus of the minor term, the conclusion, which asserts the agreement of the major term with the species, or the minor term itself, must be self-evident. To arrange things into species and genera, is extremely convenient for the purposes of language, and some of the purposes of philosophy; but to pretend to reason from the one to the other, seems to be the quintessence of vanity or folly.

588. Examine any demonstration of Euclid, any investigation of morals, politics, or affairs of common life, and you will find, that no man in earnest reasons from a genus to a species.

Illus. 1. A mathematical demonstration consists of the comparison of quantities of the same species; figures are compared with figures; angles with angles; and lines with lines.

2. An inquiry concerning justice or charity, compares these virtues with the principles of reason, equity, the laws of the community, and the situations of persons.

3. A process in the arts refers to the theory of the art, and to the example of the most reputable and successful practitioners.

589. It is of little consequence to maintain, that the syllogistic art sometimes makes its way into the most serious business, and that every indictment for a crime, for instance, is a syllogism; of which the major premise contains the description of the crime, and its punishment appointed by the law; the minor premise, the application of the law to the case of the criminal; and the conclusion, an assertion that the criminal merits the punishment appointed by the law.

Illus. 1. That an indictment stands in the form of a syllogism, no

doubt can exist. The major term is the punishment; the crime committed is the minor term and the species; the description of the crime in the law is the middle term and the genus.

Corol. The major term, or the punishment, agrees with the genus, or the law; and it agrees also, perhaps, with the minor term and the species, or the crime of the prisoner. But there is not here, strictly speaking, any reasoning.

Illus. 2. A trial is no more than a scrutiny, whether a particular crime is included under a general law, or whether the indictment uccords with truth, when it asserts, that the prisoner, in taking away the property or the life of his fellow-creature, has committed the crime of theft or murder, of which crimes the perpetrators are declared by the law to deserve punishment.

Corol. There is no more reasoning in this case, than in every application of the principles of science to the particular cases they include.

Illus. 3. The assertion that a particular field consists of a certain number of acres, is equally a syllogism with an indictment charging a culprit with the commission of a crime punishable by law.

Example. The number of acres, suppose ten, is the major term; the length and breadth of the fields, is the minor term and the species; the number of acres of which all fields of the length and breadth of the one under consideration consists, is the middle term and the genus. The major term, ten acres, agrees with the dimensions of all fields of the extent of the one under consideration; it agrees, also, with the dimensions of the one under consideration; and, therefore, it agrees both with the genus and the species of the syllogism.

Conclusion.

But, though the syllogistic method be nugatory and insignificant as an instrument of reasoning, it possesses high merit as an engine of wrangling and controversy. It was the happiest contrivance that could have been devised for conducting those public disputations and comparative trials, which for ages prevailed in Europe, and in which the discovery of truth was no part of the ambition of the combatants. The most ready and acute framer of syllogisms was sure to retire triumphant. The grand contest was not whether the syllogism contained any useful truth. The object of one party was to maintain its legitimacy; of the other, to controvert or deny one of its propositions. Wrangling thus became a science; and the mind of man, apparently enthusiastic in the discovery of truth and knowledge, never wandered farther from their paths.

BOOK V.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE.

CHAPTER I.

HUMAN KNOWLEDGE ADDRESSED TO THE MEMORY.

590. In Art. 464. Illus. we inquired, generally, what knowledge is; but it is now necessary to show that all HUMAN KNOWLEDGE is conceived to consist of sciences and arts, between which it is difficult to fix the distinction with accuracy; and, accordingly, we sometimes find the same branch of knowledge denominated, promiscuously, a science and an art. All the principles of science have some reference to practice, and the theory of every art may merit the appellation of a science.

Illus. 1. Some difference, however, there is between them, which, as far as it is of any importance, may be characterized in the following manner-A SCIENCE is a system of general truths relative to some branch of useful knowledge, and supported by evidence, either demonstrative or highly probable. An ART is the application of the organs of the body, or the faculties of the mind, to the execution of some design, directed by the best principles and rules of practice.

2. A SCIENCE is addressed entirely to the understanding; an ART generally occupies both the understanding and the members of the body. A science is acquired by study alone; an art cannot be acquired without much practice of the operations it contains. Accurate knowledge is all that is necessary in science; eminence in art demands, besides, an acquaintance with rules, and the habit of dextrous and ready performance.

591. Human knowledge divides itself into three great compartments, adapted to the memory, the understanding, and the imagination. To the MEMORY may be addressed HISTORY; to the UNDERSTANDING, PHILOSOPHY; and to the IMAGINATION, POETRY.

Obs. 1. These words, history, philosophy, poetry, taken in their most extensive meanings, may comprehend every branch of human knowledge.

Illus. I. Under HISTORY are included all facts relative to nature or society, of which we can obtain intelligence, and which we can commit to record.

2. Under PHILOSOPHY is contained all information relative to sciences or arts, attainable by the exercise of the understanding, or by experience and practice.

3. Under POETRY are implied all those branches of knowledge, which in any form contribute chiefly to engage or interest the imagination.

Obs. 2. These great divisions will be perceived to run into one another, because different branches of knowledge are generally addressed to more of those faculties than one.

592. History is divided into three parts, Sacred, Civil, and Natural.

Illus. SACRED HISTORY Comprehends the narrative parts of revelation, and the history of the church, commonly called Ecclesiastical History; embracing the history of the Jews, both political and ecclesiastical; the history of the propagation and progress of Christianity, as far as they were carried on by Jesus Christ, and his immediate successors the apostles; and the history of the Christian churches, from the era of the apostles to the present time.

593. CIVIL, or, as some writers call it, profane history, in opposition to sacred, contains an account of the governments, and of the civil and military transactions of nations; and displays those great exhibitions of human nature, which the preservation of the happiness of large communities of men, and the convulsions of societies, frequently produce.

Illus. The most instructive lessons in morality and in politics, those most useful sciences, which provide for the felicity and comfort of individuals and nations, are presented to our view in civil history. It recounts the noble deeds of the patriot and the hero, and insinuates, by their example, the most salutary instruction, while it holds forth the cruelty of the oppressor, or the irregularities and crimes of bad men, as the causes of their misery. All civilized nations have exhibited specimens of their progress in this branch of knowledge.

594. Another branch of civil, is literary history; or details of the origin and progress of learning, with the revolutions it has undergone in different ages and situations. Though the incidents of this branch are not so splendid as those of the former, they are entitled to regard.

Illus. Civil history displays the qualities of the statesman and the warrior. Literary history unfolds the productions of the imagination, of the heart, and of the understanding, and illustrates the effects of external circumstances, in calling forth or repressing the exertions