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VIII. HIGH SCHOOLS.

Township high schools necessary to a complete system.-Superintendent Jones, of Dakota: "In my last annual report I suggested that authority be delegated to each township in the Territory to establish a central high school, and that it be made a connecting link between the common schools and the universities. It would not be expected of each township that it establish and maintain such a school at once; but if the power is granted to them those having the necessary wealth may move in that direction immediately, while the weaker corporations should either wait till they acquire the ability or unite with one, two, or three others for the purpose. I am of the opinion that while the State undertakes to provide for the collegiate education of our children in addition to the common school course, there should be no break in the connection between them.

"No satisfactory reason can be urged for tolerating the 'missing link' which now exists, if there is a satisfactory reason that can be given for the establishment and maintenance by the State of the universities, which provide for the higher education. In fact the high school course is of far greater importance to the people than is the university course. At all events, the pupil is now barred from the university by a yawning chasm, which should be bridged over by the same system which bestows the common school education, when the structure will be complete. The pupil who begins with the first steps will climb the intellectual ladder round by round, till he reaches the climax; and the complete idea, the perfect system, the unity and grandeur of the structure will be the glory of the Commonwealth."

Influence of the high school.-Superintendent Morgan, of West Virginia: "As a part of the free schools the high school has become a factor of transcendent importance in the education of the people.

"Its influence is now specially marked in two directions. It is the crown and completion of the free school system, and by its close connection with the intermediate schools and the system of promotion therefrom it not only encourages but compels thorough work in them. The intermediate schools are in turn encouraged to thorough work by the prospect of advancement. In the second place, it affords the great body of the people the convenient means of academic training."

IX.-HYGIENE.

An improvement in heating and ventilation.-Superintendent Kennedy, of Wayne County, Pennsylvania: "The improvement made in heating and ventilating the graded school building at Honesdale deserves notice. The plans were made by William J. Baldwin, of the Sanitary Engineer, and are in successful operation. This system furnishes each of the 600 pupils 1,000 cubic feet of fresh, warm air per hour, and keeps the rooms at a proper temperature in the coldest weather. The air is introduced into the building through a cold air duct; from this extend smaller ducts, conveying the air to the heating-coils, of which there is one for each room. The air, when warmed, is passed by a separate duct into each room about 8 feet from the floor. Each room is provided with a foul-air duct (ventilating shaft), which starts from the floor and extends to the attic. Each ventilating shaft is provided with two registers-one near the floor, and the other near the ceiling-the first for ordinary ventilation, the last for ventilation in summer. Each ventilating shaft is provided with a radiator, to secure perfect draught. The foulair ducts are collected in a chamber above, and from this a large duct passes through the roof, allowing the foul air to escape. The air is introduced into and taken from the rooms without perceptible currents, is pure, and maintained at a temperature of nearly 72 degrees."

Forcible removal of foul air necessary.-Superintendent Smith, of Syracuse, N. Y.: "We have not found the best results while depending on natural ventilation, and for this reason the power ventilation is contemplated in the High School at the beginning of next school year, by which the cold and foul air is to be withdrawn from the building by means of a fan acting on the principle of suction, and forcing the air through ventilating shafts into the open air in the roof. Drawing in the air in this manner from the rooms causes a partial vacuum, which is balanced by an equal amount of pure air, coming over steam-heated radiators in cold weather, or through the same apertures in warm weather without heat, making it possible to have nearly perfect ventilation at all seasons. This school was built with these shafts just as they will be when the apparatus is completed, depending upon the natural flow of foul air through these shafts; but during all the years the building has stood there has been at times no ventilation, and never such as should be had. The newer buildings are better than the old, but, as has been found in respect to the High School, we shall not realize such changes in the air as the best sanitary conditions require, till some mechanical appliance is made use of for driving out the contaminated and used-up school-room air."

Speaking of buildings without ventilating shafts, Superintendent Smith says: "Only the greatest care on the part of the teachers by opening windows or doors will protect pupils, as well as themselves, from the effects of overheated and bad air. This is not likely to be attended to as it should be on account of the many duties requiring teachers' attention and thought; and in many cases teachers are made conscious of the condition of the room by the complaints of pupils that they have headache, or by a feeling of exhaustion or prostration in themselves. The teacher at once opens into the outside air and exposes all in the room to such sudden change of temperature that there is even more danger than to have continued as they were. We hope for better things in the near future."

Ventilation of rural school-houses.—Dr. D. M. Currier, of New Hampshire, suggests a plan for the ventilation "of rural school-houses by constructing an incoming or cold-air duct under the timbers of the floor, reaching from outside and opening directly upwards under the stove, and furnished with a valve to regulate the flow. Completely surround the stove by a galvanized iron case. Ventilation could be provided by placing a register in the chimney near the floor. The chimney should be large, and the smokepipe should pass through it to the top, thus creating a powerful ventilating draught." Headache in school children.-"Prof. N. J. Bystroff has examined 7,478 boys and girls in the St. Petersburg schools during the last five years, and found headache in 868, that is, 11.6 per cent. He states that the percentage of headache increases almost in a direct progression with the age of the children, as well as with the number of hours occupied by them for mental labor; thus, while headache occurred in only 5 per cent. of the children aged 8, it attacked from 28 to 40 per cent. of the pupils aged from 14 to 1. The author argues that an essential cause of obstinate headache in school children is the excessive mental strain enforced by the present educational programme, which leaves out of consideration the peculiarities of the child's nature and the elementary principles of scientific hygiene. The overstrain brings about an increased irritability of the brain and consecutive disturbances in the cerebral circulation. Profor Bystroff emphatically insists on the imperative necessity for permanently admitting medical men to conferences of school boards. Of palliative measures he menLuas methodical gymnastics, mild aperients, in well-nourished children; steel in the

anæmic, bromides, inhalations of oxygen, and, in severe cases, a temporary discontinuance of all studies."-British Medical Journal, May 15, 1886.

A silent factor in education.-Superintendent Raab, of Illinois: "I take this opportunity of once more calling the attention of school directors, and school officers generally, to this silent factor in the education of our children: clean, healthful, pleasant schoolhouses and surroundings. Not only is the health of the pupils thereby preserved, but also the aesthetic and moral sense is aroused and cultivated."

X.-SCHOOL LIBRARIES.

The dime novel has disappeared.-Superintendent Howland, of Chicago, Ill.: "The value of a well-selected library, wisely used, in a school can hardly be estimated. In more than one of our schools dime novels, once so commonly found in the desks of the pupils, or between the leaves of their geographies, have disappeared, and the neighboring dealers no longer keep them in stock, as the demand has gone. Nor scarcely can there be a stronger safeguard against the many evil attractions of city life than this love-this habit of reading good books-a habit and a love which must begin even in the primary grades. This is the sparkling fount from which will flow the healthful current of virtue, intelligence, and good citizenship."

No better investment could be made.-Superintendent Hinsdale, of Cleveland, Ohio: "One of the most formidable obstacles to carrying out any large scheme of work, in language, composition, and history, is want of books. The books in private hands, both teachers' and pupils', and in the public library, are insufficient for the purpose. No better investment of an adequate amount of the public funds could be made than the purchase of a well-selected library of books, history, travel, etc., for every one of the large school buildings.'

The most valuable part of the school.-Superintendent Kiehle, of Minnesota, in recommending State aid for the purchase of school libraries, says:

"At the age of 12 years every child ought to be a reader, and ought to begin to gather the harvest of knowledge found in good books. And especially is the life of the country well adapted to the improvement of this habit. The occupations of country life are quiet, and tend to thoughtfulness, and the lack of personal companionship and diverting amusements make the companionship of books the more enjoyable and profitable.

"I consider the well selected and carefully distributed library the most valuable part of the school. It is very possible that intelligence may prevail where there are many good books with but poor schools, but it is not to be expected that any school without the help of books will furnish society with intelligent and well informed men and women."

A most important factor.-Superintendent Lawhead, of Kansas: "From observation I am fully convinced that communities in which school district libraries are maintained are more intelligent, more progressive, and more law-abiding than communities that do not have such libraries. I believe them worthy the fostering care of the State as one of the important factors in the training of the young to become useful and intelligent citizens."

XI.-PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

THE FUNCTION OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL.

[From the report of the Committee on Pedagogies of the National Council of Education. 1]

"Reasons for their existence.—The people in their corporate capacity have undertaken the establishment and maintenance of public schools for the following reasons:

"1. Private schools from their nature must be limited in number, while education should be universal.

"2. The education of the young is indispensable to the State, and cannot be left to the contingency of the pecuniary and social circumstances of the family. Education is a need of the poor as well as of the rich, and a need of the State should not be allowed to depend on charity.

"3. The matter and form of instruction imparted in the schools of a nation cannot be left to the contingency of private selection; they should be subservient to the objects of the State, and, therefore, influenced by the State. The State could not tolerate, for instance, that doctrines subversive of its institutions should be systematically inculcated in the minds of the young.

1 National Council of Education-Proceedings, 1887, p. 19.

"While the State may favor private schools, it cannot look to them to meet the general want of education.

4. Since the efficient government of the State requires the harmonious co-operation of the masses, it is a condition for the welfare of the State to provide schools in which the children of the people grow up together without class or sect distinction, so that a more homogeneous population may make the action of the Government harmonious and energetic.

**The aim of the public school.-The task of the public school is to co-operate with the family and the church, and to prepare for life in civil society. But the first two among these agencies are variable factors in the individual case, since family education may have neglected one child, and church education may be lacking in another. The scope of public school education is necessarily enlarged by this circumstance; it must not only colaplement, but supplement family and church education. The aim of public school training becomes thereby the development of relatively perfect manhood and womanhood.

Since the power of the school is but a delegated one, and its prescribed function is instruction, the aim of public schools may be said to be the development of relatively perfect manhood and womanhood through instruction and through the guidance and discipline incidentnl thereto.

**Classification of the public school.-In so far as the public school has for its function to impart that education which is indispensable for the perpetuity of the body politic, it is the common school.

The public school when or ranized as high school or college imparts education which, while not indispensable to each intelligent citizen, should, for the general good, be possessed by a considerable number of individuals. Such higher public education is designed to train that directive ability which is so important an element in the development of the material and intellectual resources of the State and in the administration and perfection of its laws.

The duty of the State.-The State has the duty of maintaining common schools, because the are indispensable for its continued existence.

Function of the common school.--The function of the common school is to develop more perfectly manhood and womanhood by educating children through instruction in that secular knowledge which in a civilized community is indispensable to the individual, and through the guidance and discipline incidental to such instruction.

"The subjects of instruction in the common school.-The subjects of instruction in the common school are, the acquisition of the means of civilized communication, language, reading, writing, arithmetic, which supplies the measure for the exchange of the common necessaries of life and the more general economic values; a general knowledge of the country, its resources and position in the world, or popular geography; a knowledge of the institutions of the country, of their growth, and of the duties of citizenship.

**In addition to these studies which refer to the duties of citizenship more particularly, there are others which may be incorporated into the curriculum of the public school, since its aim is to train and develop manhood and womanhood and to supplemene family and church instruction. The child should learn the laws of health, and have a general knowledge of the most common objects and laws of nature. Since he should be prepared for the duties of civil life, the local conditions of a system of schools may influence the course of study. Thus in cities or manufacturing centres more attention might be paid to drawing than in rural schools.

Singing, originally introduced to aid church education, remains an object of instruction in most of the public schools, on account of the ennobling influence it has on the sentiments and the will, and on account of the assistance which it gives in the management of the school-rooni.

The common school should also attend to physical training. 1. By observing proper hygienic conditions. 2. By gymnastic exercises.

"Instruction is a means to an end. The aim is the development of manhood and womanhood in accordance with the genius of national institutions. Instruction is imparted because it educates.

"Instruction educates because it gives exercise and thereby training to the faculties. The circle of subjects should, therefore, be sufficiently wide and various to appeal to the faculties in general.

"Instruction educates by widening the views of life and supplementing the experience of the child, thus extending the circle of his interests. Through the deeper insight into the relations of life he must learn to act on principle and intelligently.

The moral training of the public school is, in a general way, to place the pupil in a position similar to those in which he finds himself in life; to accustom him to live with equals, to make him reflect on his actions, to lead him to act according to fixed prinpics, intelligently.

"To state the moral influences of the public school more in detail: The moral agencies incidental to instruction are guidance and discipline. There is, in the first place, guidance in the moral school-room habits of silence, self-control, concentration of effort, of punctuality and regularity, of industry. There is also the preparation for civil life, which the child receives by being thrown into the society of his equals, by which he learns to respect their rights and to maintain his own; the habitual submission to law and authority; experience of the evil consequences of wrong-doing; reverence for authority; reflection on moral rules and action controlled by moral intelligence as opposed to impulse."

How far the State should go in educating a child.-Superintendent Baker, of Texas: "I believe that in this day the character of its public schools will determine how far a State has advanced in civilization. An intense desire for the ultimate success of the public schools of Texas makes me bold to call attention to a much mooted and very important subject. It has not yet been carefully considered by any Legislature so far as I know, but there is no reason for longer delay. The object of providing free tuition for the child is to fit him for intelligent citizenship; to enable him to participate in the privileges of a citizen and discharge the duties incumbent upon him as a member of society. It is rather a duty the Government owes to itself than to the child. This, added to the fact that without free schools a great number of the people would be reared in ignorance of the privileges and duties of citizenship, I conceive to be the only argument in support of a free school system. Just how far the State should go in thus preparing a child is a question of much moment. Shall the line be drawn at what is commonly termed secondary education, or shall the high school, having in its curriculum the higher mathematics, the sciences, and Latin and Greek, be supported? Is the high school necessary to mould the character of citizenship mentioned? I believe not. A thorough knowledge of orthography, penmanship, reading, English grammar, geography, arithmetic, and English composition I believe amply sufficient for the purpose indicated. A knowledge of the branches taught in the high school may better prepare one for advanced thought and exalted position, but they are not necessary to the performance of the simple duties appertaining to the citizen. If what is termed the higher education is bestowed at the public expense, the poor as well as the rich are taxed to bestow it. The children of these poor seldom go through the high school, no matter if the tuition is free, because when ready for the branches taught in it they have arrived at the age of breadwinners and must work. Those who attend the high school are as a rule (and there are few exceptions to the rule) the sons and daughters of people who are so fortunate as to be able to educate their children at private schools. The high school, therefore, is in fact a school only for the fortunate few, while the many are taxed for its support. Drawing, as it does, largely from the school fund, its teachers being paid higher salaries than other teachers, the terms of the primary and intermediate schools are shortened and the State is debarred from the privilege of increasing the scholastic age. They thus keep out of the schools children under 8 and over 16 years whose education the State has made itself responsible for, and cause the Government to fail to comply with the constitutional provision declaring that a term of six months shall be maintained. These are potent reasons against the maintenance of high schools, but they are not more potent than the simple one first stated: "The State does not owe the child the character of education they bestow.'

The settled policy of the whole country.-Superintendent Buchanan, of Virginia: "Education at public expense has become the settled policy of the whole country. Hence a system of public free schools is to be found in every State and Territory of the Union. In support of these systems the annual expenditures now reach $110,000,000. This vast sum is meant to be an investment in enlightened and virtuous citizenship, upon which depends the safety of society, State and nation. Virginia is endeavoring to furnish her proper share of this investment."

A better sentiment in favor of public education required.-Superintendent Finger, of North Carolina: "Education at the expense of the State is a part of modern civilization. It can not be successfully resisted. Especially is this so in a republican form of government, such as that of the United States. If there is any one thing that stands out prominently in the history of the country, it is the stress that has all the time been laid upon the importance of education for the people.

"The constitution of North Carolina says: The people have a right to the privilege of education, and it is the duty of the State to guard and maintain that right.' This doctrine is fundamental and right, and therefore it must have recognition.

"There are now and always have been persons, in our State and in all the States, who say that it is wrong to tax one man to educate another man's children, forgetful of this fundamental right; forgetful of the fact that the safety of life and property and the welfare of the State depend upon the virtue and intelligence of the people. Such persons

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