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entire day, has been received with high favor in some localities. Mr. D. C. Tillotson says, in his last report as superintendent of schools at Topeka, Kans.: "The first grades have for a number of years been managed on the half-day plan-one set of pupils attending in the forenoon, and another in the afternoon. This saves from eight to ten teachers, saving about $5,000 per year in running expenses. This saving has put the board on a sound financial basis, and experience shows that the pupils lose nothing in scholarship. A child will do as much mental labor in a half-day as should be required in the twentyfour hours."

The superintendent at Rockville, Ind., reports: "Since our last public announcement we have adopted and tested the half-day system for first year pupils. The plan has proved entirely satisfactory. While it maintains the interest and vigor of the school, it also sustains the scholarship and prepares the grade for promotion upon a record that the all-day plan can not secure. The continuance of the system is especially desired." After an experience covering a year with half-day sessions in the primary schools, Mr. M. L. Knight, of Beaver Falls, Pa., thus states the disadvantages and advantages of the plan: "I find even in these lower rooms a class of older pupils, who have had but a limited opportunity of attending school, who have made but little advancement, but who are old enough to study. Some are found whose time when not in school is spent on the street, or in company with those whose influence is evil, and whose conduct is demoralizing. A few instances have also been reported where pupils were deeply interested in school when permitted to attend all day, but when in attendance half a day they seemed to lose much of the former interest. In these instances I believe the halfday system has been a disadvantage.

On the other hand, I have found many advantages, among which I would mention improvement in order, fewer cases of discipline, a much purer and more healthful atmosphere in the school-rooms, and consequently, better health among pupils, only one death occurring in eight months out of an enrollment of over 1,600 pupils. I found also a more intimate acquaintance and personal knowledge of the disposition and ability of pupils by the teacher, greater confidence and less restraint on the part of pupils, thus transforming the rigid government so often found in the school-room into the more perfect freedom of the kindergarten or the family.

"I have endeavored to take an unbiased view of this system, and to formulate a report based upon facts. While I am not able from our brief trial of the system, to recommend the plan for permanent adoption in all of the rooms in which it has been tried, I will say, however, without hesitation, that for children the first year in school, whether few or many are in the room, I am satisfied that three hours' drill each day, such as is given in our first primary rooms, is long enough. Pupils of this age can not study, hence they learn only while being taught, and if they can receive the same attention and instruction in three hours that they otherwise would receive in six, I can see no advantage to be gained by the long period of confinement. The school-room is not a nursery, but a place to receive and impart instruction.

"What has been said respecting pupils in school the first year is to a great extent true of children of the second or even the third year in school, and yet the exceptions hereinbefore referred to leave it an open question. If permission were given, and suitable provision made whereby those who desire the privilege and would be benefited thereby could attend both morning and afternoon sessions, I believe it would meet with favor and be open to but few objections."

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Superintendent W. B. Powell, of Washington, D. C., looks with little favor on the plan which allows the pupils' attendance but half the school day, and devotes a considerable part of his report to the subject. He says: "A half day at school is enough for a first or second grade pupil, if the school is not well taught or is in an unhealthful, uncomfortable, or uninviting school-room. These conditions, however, ought not to exist. The school-room should be commodious, well lighted and well ventilated, clean and wholesome, and not overcrowded. Our teachers are competent to teach well, and where oppportunity is given do teach well. The greater part of the moral effect of school life is lost to the child by the half-day school. Time is an important element in good teaching, particularly in the primary grades, as it is a necessary element in the acquisition of knowledge and in the assimilation of thought. If knowledge is to be gained by effort, and its value proved by experiment and application before it can become a source of power to its possessor, teaching that is wholly didactic has but little in it that is purely educational. Yet the teacher who has 50 or 60 pupils to instruct in three short hours, shortened by the encroaching darkness of a winter day, can do little or nothing in the way of training. The primary pupil of six or seven years, who is learning to see, who taking his first steps in language, cannot be properly taught didactically. He learns to see, to talk, to read, to write, by seeing, talking, reading, writing; he learns numbers only by handling numbers of things; he learns forms by making and comparing forms; and he learns to represent forms by much practice in representation. The child himself must do.

"The teacher's office is to direct, to guide; and as the young learner is teaching himself by self-activity, requiring much time, the exercises must be changed frequently, that he may have proper recreation, and this also requires much time. The child's school hours should be spent in doing or in activity for specific mental improvement, alternated by doing or physical activity for recreation, enjoyment, or specific physical improvement. This takes time. If the teacher has not the time to do this work right, she will dictate the scholastic part of the work and the child will suffer by loss of both mental self-activity and the physical activity. The primary schools should take the child as they find him coming from the home, with all the perceptive faculties active, contributing to enjoyment and adding to knowledge, and should seek to teach him by the continued activity of these same faculties systematically directed for specific purposes, and should not so radically change the child's life as to make his school life a mere memory drill. But the short-time school converts the teaching into almost purely memoriter work.

"Manual training begins in the kindergarten and should be continued in the primary school, but the child in the half-day school has no time to draw, to make forms of clay, or, by folding and cutting paper, or by laying sticks or other means; has no time to represent forms. His time must be spent in committing to memory that which he may or may not understand, because the scholastic grade work must be done.

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"That healthy, mental, moral, and physical growth that can come to childhood only by wisely directed, systematic, pleasing, and conscious self-activity can not be realized in a half-day school. That pure, natural, and earnest love for truth and knowledge is never known by the child who receives without question or investigation doses of facts as from the hands of one who has diagnosed and prescribed without explanation. Most of our teachers can do the legitimate work of the primary school properly, but they complain that the half-day school does not afford the time for doing it, and their complaint is well founded. Little time is allowed for calisthenic exercises, for games, for songs, and the repetition of mottoes; but all effort must be directed to accomplishing the grade work, that can be done only by continued pouring in, and a nervous, hurried, and too often meaningless memory drill. No one knows this better than the conscientious teacher, and no one speaks of it more frequently or more feelingly. That such memoriter work can be found in the schools is too true, That such work is found in the schools is not the fault of the teacher who is forced to do work on the half-time allotment. If we would have more and better training in school, and fewer home lessons to be studied by our small children, we must give more time and better opportunity to do the work.

"Six hours may be too long for the youngest child to go to school, but four hours-two in the forenoon and two in the afternoon, or five hours-two and a half in the forenoon and two and a half in the afternoon, for the child to be alternately working and playing, improving and resting, developing mentally and developing physically, by turn, are none too many. The child is better off in such a school than at play."

DIVISION OF CLASSES.

The following rule prevails in the schools of Washington, D. C.: "They [the teachers] shall divide their schools, when all pupils are of one grade, into two sections, and shall have one section studying while the other is reciting, as far as practicable. In penmanship, drawing, vocal music, and a few general exercises and explanations, the school should be instructed as a whole."

This arrangement is in use in a number of cities. In many cities of smaller size in which semi-annual promotions are the rule, it has been necessary to assign two classes of different grade to each teacher for the sake of economy, and in nearly every case of this kind the results have shown not only that the financial interests of the city have been advanced, but that the quality of the instruction has actually been improved.

At Steubenville, Ohio, "this has been the plan followed for the past seven years, and it is believed to be better than having all pupils in one class."

Mr. H. M. Maxson, of Attleborough, Mass., suggests that "in the arrangement of classes it would be an improvement to give each teacher 40 pupils of two nearly equal grades, rather than 40 pupils of one grade. Nearly all the recitation work in a school of one grade should be done in two divisions; thus the number of recitations with one grade in a room is about the same as it would be with a like number of pupils in two grades. The higher grade would suffer no loss in consequence of each teacher having two grades, while many of the lower grade would gain much by what they heard of the recitation of the higher grade. There would also be a greater variety of work for the teacher, and no necessity for teaching the same thing twice each day, with the loss of interest which necessarily follows from such repetition."

Mr. Joseph O'Connor, deputy superintendent of San Francisco common schools, thinks that, "the elasticity would be increased and the time and money saving made

greater if each class were arranged to consist of two consecutive grades; for then, without at all disturbing the general order and classification, the teacher might at any time promote deserving pupils from the lower to the higher division of the class."

This gentleman quotes, in further support of his proposition, a letter from the prin cipal of the Vallejo (California) High School, as follows: "For three years past the grammar schools of Vallejo have been arranged with two grades in each room. The teachers have all had experience of years with one grade in a room, and now three years' experience with two grades in each room, and all prefer having two grades in each room; not one would willingly change to the one-grade arrangement."

The following method of division reported from Decatur, Ind., also finds supporters: "The four grades of the primary department and the first two grades of the grammar department are each divided into two classes. The work of the two classes is the same, the only difference being the thoroughness with which the work is done. Pupils are transferred by the teacher from one class to another at any time on merit. By this means no pupil is held back on account of a dull class, but is permitted to go on as soon as he is ready. While this is no detriment to the indolent, it is of great advantage to the industrious."

RECESS OR NO RECESS.

The recess question continues to be one concerning which men wise in school affairs disagree. The year has brought forth nothing new or important in the way of argument, for the main points in the discussion had been frequently elaborated in past years. It may be well, however, to add the results of another year's experience to the supply of testimony pro and con, that has accumulated.

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Mr. A. P. Marble, rejoicing that the schools under his supervision in Worcester, Mass., did not discard the recess plan, says: We may congratulate ourselves that we were left behind in this instance by the so-called car of 'progress.' The progress is the wrong way."

The Mankato, Minn., superintendent does not believe in "no recess," and in the schools of that city the recess time in inclement weather is profitably employed by the teachers in teaching the girls to knit and crochet.

The Danvers, Mass., school committee explain that an intermission in the school work at noon is better suited to the habits of the majority of the people of that town, and is for that reason, preferable, even if no other were urged.

In New York City there are 2 sessions of 3 hours each, daily.

In behalf of "no-recess" is the following from Albany, N. Y.: "The fifth year of the no-recess system has corroborated the evidence of previous years, that, as promotive of healthfulness and moral and intellectual progress, it is a great step in advance over the old-fashioned mid-session recess."

The esteem in which the system is held in Muscatine, Iowa, is shown by this utterance from the principal of one of the ward schools: "Another benefit from the no-recess plan is a fuller and more regular attendance in the higher grades. It gives more time for necessary 'chores' at home by shortening the school sessions, and hence more time to attend the regular school sessions."

From Attleborough, Mass.: "For a year and a half the schools have followed the norecess plan. Last year and also this I made inquiries of teachers as to its results. The universal testimony is that it is satisfactory to the teachers, and also to the parents, as far as their opinion is known. The only thing approaching complaint in this connection has been concerning excuses to leave the room, and the co-operation of parents with teachers will easily remove this."

TRUANCY.

In the requirements for an efficient system of schools the importance of regular attendance on the part of the pupils comes next to the necessity of securing competent teachers. There must always be unavoidable reasons which necessitate the occasional absence of a child from school. The occurrence of such reasons is recognized as unfortunate but necessary, and does not, therefore, cause concern. Save in exceptional cases, as during the general prevalence of disease, the proportion of absences from such causes to the total membership is practically uniform in all cities. It is not this proportion, but the number of absences for which there is no legitimate excuse that school managers everywhere exert themselves to reduce. The aversion of some children to the schools, and the indifference of their parents, are supposed to be the most common causes for needless absences.

In those States where attendance is required by law the employment of special officers to seek out absentees and bring them into the schools, has become quite common. That plan has usually yielded excellent results in the cities. Such an officer being brought in con

tact with children who yield reluctant obedience to the law may be expected to discover facts which would not ordinarily be known to the teachers, and to recommend remedies that would not suggest themselves to those whose acquaintance with truants is limited to the intercourse of the school room.

There can be little doubt that the following from the report of the truant officer at Haverhill, Mass., might be said of the majority of cities:

"In almost every instance the boys who give me the most trouble are those who have the least care at home, both as regards their moral training and personal appearance. Some of the worst cases I have to contend with are those who are obliged to attend school with clothing so indecent as to make them ashamed to mingle with their well-clad associates. There are some parents who utterly refuse to send their children to school, not being able to clothe them respectably, and there are as many pupils out of school from that cause as from any other."

The superintendent at Williamsport, Pa., is inclined to throw much of the blame for truancy upon the parents of the delinquent, and states that they are often "willing to cover the fault of the child by lying to shield him from merited punishment."

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At Hartford, Conn., the question of absence and excuses had grown to such importance that the board took decisive action upon the subject during the year in the form of a vote that no excuse be granted by the acting school visitor, excusing any pupil from attendance at the whole or any part of the regular session of any school in this town, or from any of the regular exercises of such school, except upon the certificate of a reputable physician that such excuse is required by the state of such pupil's health."

PUNCTUALITY.

Closely related to the question of school attendance is that of promptness. Upon this subject Mr. Henry N. Mertz, superintendent of the Steubenville, Ohio, schools, thus sensibly expresses his views:

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"As regards tardiness there is a golden mean that the teacher should strive to maintain. The evil effects both on the school and in the formation of the habits of the child are recognized by all, and no reasonable effort should be spared to prevent all unnecessary tardiness; but the fact should be recognized also, that sometimes the child or his parent has to choose between tardiness and absence. There may arise some combination of circumstances which make it impossible for the child to be at school on time. tardiness may be made so odious by the teacher, and absence be so lightly passed over, that both parents and children prefer absence, and the child who might have been in school all the half-day except the first five minutes, stays away and misses the halfday's instruction rather than be numbered with the tardy troop. After considering the effect of the interruption caused by a pupil coming in late, the moral effect upon the school, and the influence in forming the character of the pupil himself, we believe there is still a balance in favor of having the pupil come to school as soon as he can. No teacher should make tardiness so much greater offence than absence that children will prefer the latter."

Crawfordsville, Ind., a city of 7,473 inhabitants, with a school enrolment of 1,293 and an average attendance of 995, is the only city in the country that has secured entire immunity from tardiness during the year. The superintendent says: "The publication of the yearly catalogue with its faithful record of the attendance and punctuality of every pupil has had much to do toward putting our schools in the enviable position they occupy with respect to punctuality, as has also the kindness of the local newspapers in publishing our monthly roll of honor."

Another city in the same State, Warsaw, reports only 85 cases of tardiness, but 13,252 half-day absences. The superintendent states that, "with the high sentiment against tardies, quite a number, when they find themselves tardy, return home and come in with a quarter or a half day's absence, thus increasing the evil.”

The plan of rewarding classes perfect in attendance with a partial holiday has been tried in several cities with excellent effect. Mr. M. L. Hawley, of Gloucester, Mass., reports: "This object is effected by our practice of allowing schools to be dismissed an hour earlier on Fridays for perfect class attendance during the week. This privilege, with the generally admirable work of the teachers, has produced excellent results. Our school attendance is now at high-water mark."

At Chelsea, Mass., "the plan of dismissing one hour earlier at the close of each month all who have been neither absent nor tardy during said month, has undoubtedly had a salutary influence upon the attendance, and if one half-day were the reward instead, for such constancy, it is believed that the actual gain in scholarship and the formation of good character would more than balance the loss occasioned by the extra half-holiday." The superintendent at Chicopee, Mass., thus bears witness to the efficacy of the plan: "The per cent. of attendance for the year is 93.4, an increase of 2.8 over that of last year, which is largely due to the adoption of the plan of giving a half-holiday each

month to pupils, in all grades below the high schools, who are neither absent nor tardy. This plan, although in operation less than a half year, has proved to be a wise one, giving us an increased percentage of attendance for each month, and consequently giving teachers opportunity to do more and better work in teaching; for it must be apparent to any one conversant with school attendance that more can be taught in thirty-nine half days with perfect attendance than in forty half days with broken and irregular attendance, which amounted previously in many cases to an absence of from one-eighth to one-half of the entire number of sessions for the month. I would most earnestly recommend the continuance of this plan."

THE EFFECT OF COMFORTABLE ACCOMMODATIONS.

"Commodious, neat, convenient, well lighted and ventilated class-rooms play an important part in promoting the moral, intellectual, and physical usefulness of a school. The school at Locust Point demonstrates the truth of this statement.

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the school, numbering about 100 pupils with 3 teachers, was kept in a dingy, cheerless old chapel, near its present location, it was small, difficult to manage, and although the teachers did everything possible to promote the efficiency of the school, yet the pupils were untidy, unpunctual, hard to discipline, and did not make satisfactory progress. After the school was transferred to the new building in which it is at present accommodated, great improvement was immediately apparent-the number of pupils increased from 100 to 333, and the number of teachers from 3 to 8. The neater appearance, better conduct and attendance, greater progress, and the increased efficiency of the school generally, is admitted by all." [From the report of Mr. Henry A. Wise, superintendent of Baltimore, Md., schools.]

EFFECT OF SCHOOL WORK UPON THE EYE-SIGHT.

This subject, in the general discussion of school hygiene, has received its share of attention.

"In the old school-rooms, and we need not go far back for them, the light was often so insufficient, that much harm undoubtedly resulted to the eyes of the children. But in our newer buildings so much thoughtful attention has been given to this subject, that the evil no longer exists there. Pupils, too, have been allowed to study with too little regard to position, and with the object too near the eye; perhaps with the result of myopia in some cases, but by no means, in my judgment, to the extent often charged. "The oculist is too definite, and too certain in his knowledge. Why should the book or paper always be 15 inches from the eye?' Five feet seven may be the average height of a man, and 8 the right number for his boot; but is he to be considered deformed, or a monstrosity, who is 5 feet 6, or who wears a number 7, or 9?

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"Of over 80,000 children in our schools I have never seen one voluntarily take that distance; and have eminent professional opinion that such an enforced rule would work more harm than ever our neglect has done. Nothing will lie so unblushingly as figures.

"Much attention has been given to this subject, and in many of our schools the result is all that good sense, or good science can demand." [From the report of Mr. George Howland, superintendent of Chicago schools.]

The following, from the report of the board of education, describes the results of a recent examination of the eyes of the pupils of two of the leading public schools of Memphis, Tenn.:

"The eyes of 681 pupils have been examined. Of these 588 had perfect sight, 60 had imperfect sight from general causes, and 30 had impaired vision from eye strain. It is interesting to trace the gradual increase of this form of impaired sight (near-sightedness) from the primary classes, where it is hardly noticeable, to the highest grade, where it reaches 15 per cent. In this particular my results are similar to those obtained by examiners in this and other countries. But a point which should not be overlooked is this-that my examinations were confined to pupils in two different school buildings, each of which may be taken as a sample of its class. The Market street building has been recently constructed and is well arranged, both as to illumination and ventilation, whereas the antiquated structure on Linden street is sadly deficient in both of these particulars. Now, compare the percentage of near-sighted children in corresponding classes (fourth, fifth, and sixth) in the two buildings, and you will find that while the Market street school has 2.8 per cent., the Linden street school has 5 per cent. These figures commend the new building as strongly as they condemn the old, and no stronger plea can be advanced for new buildings, so constructed as to furnish proper illumination and a plentiful supply of fresh air than is furnished by these figures, which show that nearly double the number of pupils with impaired sight come from a badly constructed building with poor light and bad air."

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