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but it would be as readily recognized that they are not of frequent occurrence. From the munificence of wealthy individuals universities and colleges and theological schools have received liberal endowments and expensive buildings and apparatus, but medical and law schools have been left to depend upon their own resources. Wherever a theological seminary has not been endowed it is sustained by funds received from churches or societies, tuition fees not being considered an element in sustaining the institution. In the table of theological schools in the Commissioner's Report for 1888-89, only 8 seminaries are reported as having received tuition fees, and 4 of these were colored schools, which are usually supported by the gifts of friends, which in these instances were possibly accredited to tuition fees. Not only do theological students receive free instruction, but in a large number of cases their board and lodging are also furnished them.

In the reports received from law schools in 1891-95 40 scholarships are said to have been given to students. This does not average 1 scholarship to each school. In the 23 schools of law which form part of State universities tuition fees are charged with but three exceptions, so that the law schools are really not supported by the States. In the medical schools 295 scholarships are said to have been bestowed, but many of these are not scholarships in a strict sense. Thirteen, carrying possibly the largest amounts in the aggregate, were in the Harvard medical school. The scholarship having the largest amount of any, $700, was in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York.

In the Leonard medical school of Shaw University, Raleigh, N. C., an institution for the education of colored students in medicine, there were 56 students in attendance, and 56 scholarships are reported to have been given. This probably is equivalent to saying that the medical school was supported entirely by charitable contributions, no tuition being charged.

Quite a number of medical schools, especially of those not fully established and which are anxious to secure a large attendance, make a reduction in annual charges to young men of limited means. Others make reductions to sons of ministers and physicians. Notice is intended to be taken here, however, only of those scholarships which are bestowed from the income of invested funds or which are contributed directly by friends, and not of those instances where new schools remit charges in order to obtain students.

In the medical school of Harvard University, Boston, Mass., 13 scholarships were distributed in 1894-95. There are 2 Barringer scholarships of $300 and $200, respectively, the Cheever scholarship of $200, the Isaac Sweetser scholarship of $200, 4 faculty scholarships of $200 each, the Claudius M. Jones scholarship, the Orlando W. Doe scholarship, the Charles Pratt Strong scholarship of $100, the Lewis and Harriet Hayden scholarship of $100 for colored students, and the income of the John Foster fund, amounting to about $150, payable every other year. There are also 3 fellowships in the medical school, established by Mr. William S. Bullard, amounting to $225 each.

The Boston University school of medicine (homeopathic) has 2 alumni scholarships besides the Garfield and Wade scholarships. The Fenno Tudor loan fund provides for loans, in sums not exceeding $50, to meritorious young women. The George Russell loan fund does the same for young men.

The woman's medical school of Northwestern University, Chicago, Ill., has 5 endowed scholarships for missionaries. One of these was endowed by Mrs. Chandler, of Detroit, Mich., in behalf of the Woman's Presbyterian Board of Missions of the Northwest. The Woman's Methodist Foreign Missionary Society has 2 perpetual scholarships, endowed by Mrs. Emily W. N. Schofield. Mrs. Schofield also endowed 1 scholarship for the Woman's Missionary Board of the Congregational Church. The medical department of Columbian University, Washington, D. C., by means of a liberal endowment from the late W. W. Corcoran, is enabled to give 6 free scholarships.

In the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York City, through the generosity of the late Alonzo Clark, for many years president of the College of Physicians and Surgeons and professor of pathology and practical medicine, a scholarship with an income of about $700 a year is bestowed for the purpose of promoting the discovery of new facts in medical science. There are also 2 alumni fellowships, open to graduates of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, which have an annual value of $500 each, besides entitling the holders to free instruction in any of the schools of Columbia College.

In the Woman's Medical College of the New York Infirmary there are 2 scholarships founded by the children of Mr. and Mrs. Robert Haydock, who were among the incorporators and first trustees of the institution. Students sent by missionary boards to prepare for missionary work get a reduction of one-half from the annu..1 charge.

In the Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia, the incomo from funds left for the purpose by Ann Preston, M. D., Robert J. Dodd, M. D., Hannahı

W. Richardson, and Isaiah V. Richardson, enables the college to assist annually a limited number of women who are adapted to the profession of medicine, but are unable to secure a medical education without such aid. Four students may also be admitted at a reduction of $35 each year from the regular fees, upon presentation of a certificate from a missionary society stating definitely the intention of the applicant to prosecute medical work abroad under the direction of the society, and that she will receive from the society pecuniary assistance in obtaining a medical education.

The University of Pennsylvania gave 16 scholarships entitling to free tuition, 3 of them being obtained in competitive examination.

The Marion-Sims College of Medicine, St. Louis, Mo., through the liberality of certain friends of the institution, has 5 scholarships which entitle the holder to free instruction.

The Leonard medical school of Shaw University, Raleigh, N. C., an institution for the education of the colored race, has a fund of $5,000, received from the late Judson Wade Leonard, of Hampden, Mass., the income of which is used to furnish scholarships for young men in the medical school. It also received $1,000 from the John F. Slater fund, which was used for the same purpose.

REQUIREMENT OF ACADEMIC DEGREES FROM MEDICAL STUDENTS.

Not many years ago any young man, after spending a few months of preparatory study in a physician's office, could matriculate in probably any medical school in the United States, and, moreover, in only eighteen months he could come out of almost any medical school with his diploma. As a result young men from all sides were being graduated as doctors of medicine, although their medical knowledge was necessarily very limited. They were given diplomas certifying that they had been examined and found learned in all things pertaining to medicine and surgery. Fortunately, however, the diploma was usually in Latin, so that the truthfulness of the statement would not likely be called in question. Afterwards, with increasing numbers of students, the medical colleges demanded three years of attendance, and when this did not perceptibly diminish the number of students, another year was added, making four years in the medical courses. The graduation requirements were made higher and higher, but the qualifications for entrance remained practically unchanged.

In reply to inquiries of the Journal of the American Medical Association, January 12, 1895, we find the following from the medical department of Yale University: "I have felt for some time that an increase in the matriculation requirement was more needed in this country than the increase of time of study-that is, that three years with well-prepared students would be better for the profession than a larger number of students kept at their professional work for a year longer. This opinion, however, does not seem to be the one which has prevailed."

With few exceptions the doors are still open to any one, the only regulations having reference to time to be spent. One important exception to this statement is in New York, where the regulations of the regents of the State University are such as to require a good secondary education before matriculation.

The medical school of Johns Hopkins University was the first to come out boldly and demand a college degree as a requisite for admission to the full course.

Harvard medical school is another to take an advance step on this question. President Eliot has already mentioned the year 1900 as an appropriate time to inaugurate the change. In the divinity school of Harvard an academic degree has been a prerequisite to entrance for some years, and in 1896 it will also be demanded of all students taking the regular course in the law school.

Since the above was written the faculty of the medical school of Harvard University, at a meeting held January 4, 1896, adopted the following resolutions:

"In and after June, 1901, candidates for admission to the medical school must present a degree in arts, literature, philosophy, science, or medicine from a recognized college or scientific school, with the exception of such persons of suitable age and attainments as may be admitted by a special vote of the faculty taken in each case. "All candidates, whether presenting a degree or not, are and will be required to satisfy the faculty that they had a course in theoretical and descriptive (inorganic) chemistry and qualitative analysis sufficient to fit them to pursue the courses in chemistry given at the medical school."

The courses in law, theology, and medicine are naturally post-graduate studies, and if our lawyers and doctors are not to be college graduates, who shall be, besides ministers and college professors? In theological schools it has not been difficult to secure attendance of students with degrees, for there, on account of assistance of churches or societies, the expenses of students amount to but little. In the law schools heretofore the course of study has not been so extended that young men could not complete it at a reasonable age, but it is difficult to see how, under present conditions, all medical students can be required to take a full college course before

entering upon professional studies and at the same time begin their professional careers at a suitable age. They do not complete the college course until 22 or 23 years of age, and as nearly all medical schools have adopted courses of four years young men will be about 27 years of age before they can finish the medical course, and will be about 30 years old before they can be expected to support a family. If all medical students must be supported until they have completed college and professional courses at 27 years of age, it will soon be impossible for young men from the ordinary walks of life to complete a medical course at all.

It is claimed, however, by those who believe in a full, liberal education for all medical students, that if the elementary and secondary education of pupils was properly conducted, and if there was a better correlation of secondary and higher studies, young men would be prepared for entering college at an earlier age. There can be no question but that progress in elementary studies could be much more rapid, especially in rural schools, if they had efficient teachers and supervisors. With the general improvement being constantly made in the public schools it is reasonable to conclude that in a few more years there will be nothing to hinder young men from receiving a full, liberal education and also completing a course in medicine at a much earlier age than is now possible.

President Eliot has said:

"The average age of admission to Harvard College at this moment is fully 19. The student who stays there four years to get his A. B. is 23 when he graduates, He then goes to our medical school to stay there four years; so he is 27 years of age before he even has his medical degree, and we all know that some years intervene between that achievement and competency to support a family. Now, that highly educated young man ought to have been married at 25.

"The remedies for this state of things-which is really intolerable, and which particularly ought not to exist in a country so new as ours-are somewhat complex. They, in the first place, must include an improvement in the secondary schools of the country, whereby the boys may learn a great deal more and yet come out of them earlier. The proper age for secondary education in our country is between 13 and 18, not higher. Then I must frankly say that for years I have been in favor of reducing the ordinary term of residence for the degree of B. A. to three years, an out and out square reduction from four to three years."

At the medical congress in Baltimore, in 1895, Dr. Perry H. Millard, of Minnesota, stated that while it is too early for medical colleges generally to require an academic degree before admission, the standard of entrance requirements should nevertheless be raised. He suggested as a general standard that all medical students be required to show a certificate of matriculation in some college or university, or else undergo an examination to indicate an equivalent preparation. Some higher and more easily ascertainable standard of entrance requirements than the present indefinite regulations will have to be adopted before general satisfaction will be obtained.

Columbia University, New York, allows senior students of the college to elect studies in the professional schools, the purpose being, according to President Low, to shorten the time required for completion of a professional course. In the first year of the adoption of the four years' course in medicine there was a decline in the percentage of students with degrees from 40 to 36 per cent. He says students can not postpone professional studies until 22 or 23 years of age, while in England and Germany professional studies are taken up at 19 or 20 years of age, and especially since the age for completion of a professional course should be earlier in a new country than in an older one. According to President Low the trouble is that the college course has been lifted out of its proper place and away from its appropriate ages, namely, 16 to 20, and as a result young men go directly from the high school to the professional school.

One indirect advantage to be derived from the plan of Columbia, of allowing selection of professional studies in the senior year, is that students after beginning professional studies in the university will probably continue them, whereas otherwise law students especially might begin professional training in private offices of attorneys, and so be deprived of the full discipline and equipment in legal knowledge to be obtained in a law school.

Prior to the establishment of the common schools, the courses in any of the colleges could be entered upon at an earlier age than at present. This was not attributable to better instruction in the schools, for it was probably not equal to that of present times, but the boys who expected to enter upon a collegiate course had their studies shaped to meet the college requirements, even from the time of entering the grammar grades. There were many schools having as their declared purpose the preparation of boys for certain higher institutions, and all of the instruction was designed to meet this end, and the success of the school was determined in large measure by the readiness with which its pupils attained collegiate matriculation. As the result of this concentration of efforts and purpose upon the accomplishment of a particular object, the boys rarely failed to reach the standard required, even at the early age

desired by parents. We say "the boys" rarely failed, for in those days it was no indignity to term them such, even for some months after matriculation, but now college students are all "young men."

But with the advent of the common schools the ends designed to be accomplished were changed. There were no longer a few select schools with select pupils to be prepared for college, but there were many schools with many pupils, to a considerable extent children of the populace, of the oi nolloi, and in some of the larger cities possibly of a multitudo egens et perdita. These desired not that their children should be prepared for college, but that they might keep the wolf from the door. They attached little value to Latin and Greek, but desired training in English branches and practical studies.

As the number of students preparing for collegiate training is always much smaller than the number soon to enter business in some form, the courses preparing for college become less important and academic candidates are left to qualify themselves as best they can. The courses in the high schools have gradually been broadened so as to include many other useful and practical studies, which even prospective college students are unwilling to omit. Consequently the age for completion of high school courses has been elevated, and instead of preparing pupils for entrance to college they aim rather at preparation for the practical duties of life.

But at the same time the matriculation requirements of colleges have been elevated. This caused no particular hardship a few years ago when a professional course could be completed with ease in one or two years. The courses in medicine were regarded as requiring only a few months' study, and as for law, one could study three months or a year, according to his convenience.

But times have changed, and this is soon realized by young men who conclude to study medicine with the expectation that they can complete the course as rapidly and as easily as was done by some physician they have known for years. In medicine every year now marks some advance in the requirements for graduation or for a medical license. The advances are made so rapidly as to escape the observation of all except those who are particularly interested in the subject.

The courses of law schools are also being extended somewhat, although not so noticeably as in medical schools, and the standard of preliminary education is being elevated.

In consequence of this broadening and lengthening of the courses in elementary schools, and the advanced age for completion of collegiate studies, young men who take a degree before beginning professional courses frequently can not complete the same until 28 or 30 years of age.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON MEDICAL SCHOOLS.

The College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia College, New York, which lately received from the Vanderbilt family some important additions to its already valuable property, will soon be in possession of still other extensive improvements. The group of college buildings, given by the late William H. Vanderbilt and members of his family and by William D. Sloane, esq., stood upon thirty contiguous lots of land, bounded on the south, west, and north by Fifty-ninth street, Tenth avenue, and Sixtieth street. The college building proper consisted of a southern portion measuring 140 by 40 feet, a northern portion 96 by 43 feet, and a middle portion 96 by 55 feet. Through the recent generous gift of Messrs. Cornelius, William K., Frederick W., and George W. Vanderbilt there has been rendered possible an important enlargement of the college building. The present south wing will be extended eastward for 55 feet and to a depth of 80 feet. It will be four stories high and will be devoted to the department of anatomy.

The new Vanderbilt clinic covers an area of 180 by 60 feet, and is three stories in height. The original building having proved inadequate to accommodate the large number of patients, the sons of Mr. Vanderbilt united in an additional gift of $350,000, enabling the size of the building to be doubled.

The Sloane Maternity Hospital is a lying-in hospital given by William D. Sloane, esq., whose wife, a daughter of the late William H. Vanderbilt, has endowed the institution, making all of its beds free in perpetuity. Through the further munificence of Mr. Sloane the present hospital is to be greatly enlarged. The new building will be six stories high, but will conform to the old building in general architectural style. This will furnish 72 additional beds for patients and offer greater accommodation for the house staff and nurses.

An addition to the Barnes Medical College building, of St. Louis, four stories high, and in immediate connection with the main building, was lately erected, covering an area of 40 by 50 feet. It provides a separate entrance to the clinic for diseases of women and children, and contains a microscopical laboratory 20 by 50 feet. Upon the second floor is a chemical laboratory 40 by 50 feet, and so arranged as to enable 100 students to simultaneously engage in the practical work in this

department. Upon the third floor is an elegant museum, and the fourth contains an amphitheater with a seating capacity of nearly 500. The amphitheater is lighted from the dome, and the seats are so arranged that every student can obtain a satisfactory view.

The Missouri Medical College, of St. Louis, one of the oldest medical institutions of the country, has just completed its fifty-fourth year. It now has a new edifice in process of construction which will afford increased laboratory and clinical facilities and give place for all the didactic lecture rooms under one roof.

The Omaha Medical College completed its new building in the fall of 1893. It is of pressed brick, with stone and terra-cotta trimmings, three stories and basement. The main amphitheater is on the second floor, 31 by 41 feet, and will seat 275 students. The entire building is heated by steam and lighted by electricity.

The medical department of Buffalo University now occupies its new building on High street, near Main. It is finished with terra cotta, pressed brick, iron, and hard wood. It contains three amphitheaters, a chemical laboratory in which 96 students can work at one time, and other laboratories.

The medical department of Tulane University, of Louisiana, occupies a new site twice as large as the former one and only two squares from Charity Hospital, with 700 beds, and where over 10,000 patients are annually treated. There is a central medical building containing two large lecture rooms, one above the other, and two wings for laboratories, library, museum, and recitation rooms. The lecture rooms have a seating capacity of about 500 each and are entirely free from posts and pillars.

The medical department of Johns Hopkins University received another improvement in 1894, the Women's Fund Memorial Building. The sum of $500,000 was raised for the endowment of the medical department on condition that women would be admitted on the same terms as men. Miss Mary Elizabeth Garrett contributed $306,977 in addition to previous subscriptions. The course of instruction now covers

four years of nine months each.

Baltimore Medical College has a new five-story building on Madison street and Linden, erected at a cost of $75,000. The lecture hall is 40 by 80 feet, and can seat 600 students. The anatomical room contains tables for 90 students to dissect at one time, and there is a chemical laboratory 42 by 84 feet.

DEGREE IN PHARMACY.

At a meeting of the American Pharmaceutical Association in Asheville, N. C., September, 1894, a paper was read by Robert J. Snyder on the subject, "What objections can be urged against bestowing the degree of doctor of pharmacy upon graduates of pharmacy who take a post-graduate course."

The degree very generally given at completion of the regular course has been that of graduate in pharmacy (Ph. G.), but there is some disposition to adopt the former title as seeming more commensurate in dignity and importance with the more extended and elaborate courses which have been introduced of late years, a change which was advocated in the paper above mentioned.

Of 31 schools of pharmacy concerning whose degree information has been received, all but 5 give the degree of graduate in pharmacy. The two schools at Washington, D. C., viz, the National College of Pharmacy and the pharmaceutical school of loward University, and the college of pharmacy of the University of Minnesota, bestow the degree of doctor of pharmacy, which is sometimes unfortunately abbreviated Ph. D., symbols which are generally interpreted differently..

The University of Michigan and Vanderbilt University give the degree of pharmaceutical chemist, their courses not requiring practical work in a pharmaceutical establishment, and not claiming to prepare for full commercial work. The school of pharmacy of the University of Kansas will hereafter give the degree of pharmaceutical chemist and will not require shop experience. Vanderbilt University also gives the degree of master in pharmacy upon completion of one year's satisfactory postgraduate work in the school. The Illinois College of Pharmacy and the school of pharmacy of Purdue University give the degree of graduate in pharmacy, and for a longer course the degree of pharmaceutical chemist.

TRAINING IN DRUG STORES.

Not a great many years ago schools of pharmacy were almost unknown. Many physicians prepared their own medicines for administration, which quite frequently consisted of teas made from botanical plants, gathered by the physician himself from neighboring fields. Even after it became the general custom for prescriptions to be sent to a pharmacist, he received all of his training in the shop, and usually had one

1 The College of Pharmacy of Minnesota University gives the degree of doctor of pharmacy, which it abbreviates Phm. D.

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