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"The restraining sections are (a) 'the conscience clause,' applicable to all elementary schools receiving state aid; (b) the section prohibiting any religious catechism or religious formulary which is distinctive of any particular denomination,' which affects board schools only, and (c) the proviso that no by-law can be made preventing the withdrawal of any child from any religious observance, or instruction in religious subjects, or requiring any child to attend school on any day exclusively set apart for religious observance by the religious body to which his parent belongs, which, of course, affects board schools only.

"By a return made to the House of Lords, 1884, it appears that (a) in an overwhelming majority of board schools in England and Wales religious exercises take place, in most instances daily; (b) the services generally consist of reading

the Bible, with or without comments, prayers, and hymns; cases the Bible is not read.

but in some

“France.-Education in all the national educational establishments is exclusively secular. And by the law passed in 1886 'in public schools of every description all instruction is to be given exclusively by laymen.'

"Religious instruction must not now be given in schoolhouses;

in private schools.

"Private schools

optional

are subject to state supervision in respect of (a) morality, (b) sanitary arrangements, (c) the keeping a register of, and reporting, absences, and (d) so that the books used be not such as are contrary to the actual constitution or principles of government.

"Switzerland.-Switzerland is a republic where there are no universal sympathies of race, language, or religion. The Swiss apparently have concluded (1) that the existence of such a republic, unless all its citizens are sufficiently educated, is an impossibility; and (2) that to secure such universal and sufficient education (a) compulsory-attendance laws and gratuitous instruction are necessary; (b) religion must be admitted as the basis of education, but consideration must be shown for the religious feelings of all; (c) there must be local government in all matters primarily affecting localities.

"Italy.—Italy is progressing rapidly in state education.

But state education in Italy is not, as yet, in that matured condition which warrants looking to it for profitable example.

*

"Its religious feature consists in the lay head masters conducting once a week, on Saturdays, a religious exercise in the great majority of schools, although there are some exceptions where this is entirely left out of the programme. But even religious instruction is only given to those children whose parents express a wish for it; and all the children may be exempt from it by going to school one hour later than ordinarily.

"In each province there is a school board under the presidency of the prefect, which board has the supervision of private as well as public primary and secondary schools in respect of sanitary and moral matters.

*

"Roman Catholic schools. In addition to state-aided and private schools there exist numerous primary and secondary schools established by the Roman Catholic Church which are gratuitous, well-attended, well conducted, and carried on under the presidency of the clergy. There, of course, religious instruction is a main feature.

*

"I ascertained (1) that the Roman Catholic authorities are not at all satisfied with the system of state education in Italy, hence they have felt compelled to carry on their own free schools; and (2) that the principal grounds of their dissatisfaction are (a) that religious instruction is not, in state schools, the basis of education; (b) and when given, is not conducted as they approve, which defects are considered to have a most depraving effect upon the morale of the school."

'It is said, however, to be very rare that families refuse religious instruction. Nearly everywhere Jews, with a few Protestants, are the only ones to absent themselves.

Mr. Laishley also quotes a high authority on education at Rome, who thinks (a) far too many subjects are taught in the state schools, (b) that it would be infinitely preferable to have a few subjects taught thoroughly, and (e) that education should not be compulsory, but left to parental discretion.

Germany.—Mr. Laishley finds in Germany "(a) consideration for the feelings of virtually all in religious matters; (b) local government, including regulation of religious instruction (subject to the protection of minorities), of direct taxation, of expenditure, and of administrative details; (c) religion (subject to certain conscience clause provisions) considered as the basis of instruction, and therefore placed as the primary subject on elementary school programmes; (d) compulsory attendance laws; (e) thorough qualification of all teachers for private as well as for public schools, (f) and recognition of the great importance of gymnastic exercises.

"So that in Germany, as in Switzerland, we find friction between the State and the citizens in religious matters provided against.

"Belgium. From recent changes in the Belgian educational system, and from the circumstances surrounding them, valuable lessons can be derived. It is, therefore, an opportune time for comment. It is requisite to remember that Belgium is a country where, at least nominal, Roman Catholics very largely predominate, and where the Roman Catholic clergy have great influence; that the state system in force under the law of 1st of July, 1879, was a secular one; and that the sole provision for religious instruction was that if parents wished their children to be benefited by the ministrations of the clergy, such ministrations could only be given (upon the application of the parents) before or after school hours-the principle adopted being that religious instruction should be left to the care of families and ministers. The result was that religious training in schoolhouses virtually amounted to nothing; and that the Roman Catholic authorities established primary schools, and added to the number of their secondary schools (écoles moyennes et colleges), all which were, and are still, largely attended. But there grew up in consequence a very bitter and deep feeling of hostility, created or fostered by the clergy, against the state system; and when the clerical party latterly obtained political ascendency, educational reform was carried out.

"It is unnecessary to detail the violent agitation, almost amounting to revolution, caused by the enacting of the new law; affording, it would seem, clear proof of the impolicy (to say nothing of the injustice, which, of course, is always impolitic) of a state identifying itself with a nonreligious or religious educational scheme, without providing that every consideration be shown toward the religious or nonreligious convictions of all its subjects.

"The recent act is strongly condemned by the Liberals, but it will certainly be maintained so long as the Conservative party are in power.

"The reform is an advance upon that of 1st of July, 1879, as more favorable to local government, especially in religious matters.

"The communes have now more power; for instance, when the inhabitants in a commune are unanimous respecting religious teaching, it is open to them to subsidize, as primary schools, clerical ones, and to thereby virtually abolish undenominational schools. Even when ratepayers are not unanimous, a minority of 20 fathers of families is entitled to claim that a school shall be established for the use of their children, where religious teaching according to the views of the parents may be conducted as a main feature in education, and under certain circumstances they can indicate one or more schools that they wish adopted; the sole conditions imposed by the state being that (a) the school must be established in a suitable place; (b) half at least of the teachers must have obtained diplomas, or have successfully passed an examination for teachers before a board organized by the Government; (c) the At Berlin even the comparatively small number of Jewish pupils in primary schools are to be sup plied with Jewish teachers for religion.

instruction given must come up to the proper standard; (d) the children of the poor are to be received gratuitously; and (e) the school is subject to Government inspection. The defect, however, seems to be the nonprovision for a minority of less than twenty fathers.

"The effect will probably be that there will be in towns as many undenominational schools as ever, but that in the rural districts, where the Roman Catholic clergy have greater influence than in many of the towns, there will be great changes and the peasantry will be relieved from the serious hardship of paying for schools which they do not use. The law, as regards State schools, still remains intact in respect of its secular character and in respect of the provisions for religious teaching, but the main amendment promotes the support of schools where such religious doctrines and formularies, be they Roman Catholic or otherwise, as the managers of the school think proper, form a portion of the ordinary plan of study.

"However, until such measures be introduced as provide that consideration be shown toward all, one can scarcely expect to find that the Belgian educational system will be devoid of that friction which would alone prevent the perfecting of details apart from those relating to religious teaching.

"The United States of America.-The range of country is so immense and the social conditions so diverse that it is difficult to make general statements applicable to the States as a whole. The condition of education in each State or Territory must be judged on its merits.

"Very great allowance must be made in view of (a) the colored race element, a result of the abolition of slavery, whereby some additional millions became entitled to claim State rights, and (b) of the vast number of immigrants of various nationalities continually pouring in, to whom the system of the majority has to be adapted.

"Sectarian instruction is not given in the public schools. It is quite a common practice to open or close the public schools with Bible reading and prayer. Singing of religious hymns by the entire school is still more common.

"The influence of the schools is wholly on the side of morality and religion. Religious teaching, however, is entirely intrusted to church and family agencies.

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"In truth, arrangements for religious teachings are a source of discontent in the United States, especially to the Roman Catholics. They are not upon a basis which satisfies all, or virtually all, and can not be deemed permanent."

Mr. Laishley presents a tabular contrast of all the countries under discussion, from which the following is a condensation, to show the extent of religious instruction in public schools and supervision of private schools. He has rated the prevalence of religious instruction in public schools of the United States too high.

Name of country.

Great Britain.

France

Switzerland

Italy

Germany

Belgium

Religious instruction in public
schools.

State supervision of private schools.

As directed by boards and volun- None, except that the board must tary school managers.

None

Yes....

Yes.

Yes.

Optional with communes

United States of America... No universal rule; in most places

a certain amount; the system
must be deemed secular; there
is dissatisfaction, and therefore
friction.

be satisfied "a child is under efficient instruction."

Yes; teachers must have certifi cates.

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In Belgium to 1879 religious instruction was regularly given in public schools. In that year the schools were completely secularized. The reaction of 1884 restored religious instruction, with some modification, as before the act of 1879.

communes.

The law of September 20, 1884, however, left religious instruction optional with the In 1895 only 153 out of 5,778 schools did not have daily religious instruction on their programmes. By a law of that year (1895) religious instruction onehalf hour daily was made obligatory, except for children whose parents ask that they be excused. The instruction is to be given by the ministers of the several denominations, or, under their supervision, either by the teacher, if he consents, or by another person approved by the communal council. The inspection of the religious instruction is by the "chief of the confessions" through their delegates, and not as part of the State inspection.

Teachers must abstain from any attack on the religious belief of the families whose children are intrusted to them.

In brief, the pupils are to have religious instruction in the schools, under the faith of their parents, or to be excused from religious exercises so far as parents ask it. France is the only European country at this time whose schools are rigidly secularized, and there Thursday is kept as a holiday to give opportunity for religious instruction elsewhere.

These glimpses at conditions in the countries where parents were born will be suggestive as to the views of public education, especially as related to religion, to which a large part of our people are accustomed. This statement is only suggestive, and therefore only the States are named in the following paragraphs in which the descendants of any nationality specified form a prominent fraction. It will be evident that the influences of a given nationality are quite local, and that their diversity tends to maintain the specialization of our State systems.

HIGH RATIOS OF FOREIGN PARENTAGE.

In North Dakota and Minnesota more than three-fourths of the population is of foreign parentage; in Wisconsin almost three-fourths; in Utah close to two-thirds; in South Dakota near three-fifths; in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Michigan, Montana, Arizona, Nevada, and California just over one-half; in New Jersey, Illinois, and Wyoming just below one-half; in Iowa, Nebraska, Colorado, Idaho, and Washington over two-fifths; in Pennsylvania and Ohio just above one-third; in Oregon not quite one-third; in Kansas and Missouri just over one-fourth, and in Maryland just below one-fourth.

The localization of the principal elements of foreign parentage-from Ireland, Germany, Great Britain, Canada, and Scandinavia-appears in the following paragraphs.

Ireland.-Persons of Irish parentage form just above one-fourth of the whole population in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut; barely under one-fifth in New York; just below one-sixth in New Jersey; barely over one-seventh in Nevada; close to one-eighth in California, Pennsylvania, and Montana.

Germany.-Persons of German parentage are much above a third of the whole population in Wisconsin; above one-fifth in Illinois and Minnesota; a little below one-fifth in New York; close to one-sixth in Ohio; more than one-seventh in New Jersey, Nebraska, Iowa, and Michigan; just below one-seventh in Missouri, South Dakota, Maryland, and Indiana; barely short of one-ninth in Pennsylvania; and a little more than one-tenth in North Dakota and California.

Great Britain.-Persons whose parents were born in Great Britain form more than one-third of the population in Utah; more than one-seventh in Idaho; close to onesixth in Wyoming; one-eighth in Nevada, and nearly one-eighth in Montana and Rhode Island. The United States is so closely allied to Great Britain by early settlement, colonial government, habits of thought, community of language, and ready intercourse that the figures which show persons not more than one generation re moved from foreign birth do not adequately represent the ratio of British influence on our social condition. As illustrating indirect ways by which British methods touch public sentiment with us, attention may be directed to the assistance missionaries from this country receive from British colonial governments for their schools.

When a Congregational missionary from Bombay, India, for example, reports to his friends in this country, his balance sheets are likely to show a Government grant of one-half the cost of his manual training school shop, one-fourth the cost of the teacher's residence, and an allowance, according to results shown upon examination by the Government inspector, not exceeding one-third the current expenses. This same missionary will state that the Government pays no attention to the religious teaching and stands ready to make kindred grants to schools of any religion, or of no religion, that put themselves under its inspection and produce like results in so-called secular education. This is in sharp contrast with recent denominational action in this country where several religious bodies relinquished government contracts for Indian schools in the movement to separate Government action from any relation to sectarianism. One can hardly help inquiring whether the present current of sentiment in the United States will lead to instructions from mission boards here to their missionaries in the British dominions to refuse Government aid, or whether the experience of the missionaries will tend to modify the current feeling at home.

Canada.-Persons of Canadian parentage are more than one sixth the entire population of New Hampshire and Vermont; just over one-eighth of the population of Massachusetts and Maine, and just below one-eighth in Michigan and Rhode Island. Scandinavia.-Persons of Scandinavian parentage form close to one-third the whole population of North Dakota; over one-fourth in Minnesota; just above one-sixth in South Dakota; just below one-sixth in Utah, and almost one-ninth in Wisconsin.

European conditions summarized.-The people of Continental Europe, the Germans and the Scandinavians, have been accustomed to a state church, to compulsory education, to religious teaching based upon the Bible, but accommodated in a catechetical form to certain faiths, in the state schools, and to tuition fees above the elementary schools. The exceptional conditions of France, are recent (schools secularized by laws of 1882 and 1886), and affect us little, except through their example in the great movement of cosmopolitan public opinion, that country furnishing as yet few immigrants, and those hardly grown used to the new conditions of their own country.

CURRENT DISCUSSION IN ENGLAND.

The English, although having a state church, are like ourselves in some aspects of their experience with religious teaching. They have a recent public-school system, but questions of religious instruction are subject to local views of policy. Protestant dissenters or nonconformists appear among the active opponents of religious instruction in the public schools. The English have not even now a school system for general education, like that of Massachusetts, for example. They have been accustomed since 1839 to a "grant in aid” system, by which the Government has aided schools of any or no faith, according to results in secular education and the conditions of the schools. Not half the pupils are in schools under charge of public-school boards.

The English people have now two prominent types of procedure as to religion in public schools. One is illustrated in schools of the London school board, where religious instruction, called unsectarian, is made prominent. The Bible is studied, not merely read. The other type is known to some under the name of the Birmingham method, because adopted by the Birmingham school board, in whose schools only secular instruction is given. Permission is given for the children whose parents so desire to attend religious instruction under forms which they select during certain school hours. The London type reaches all pupils except those specifically excused on their parents' request. The Birmingham method leaves all who do not distinctly select religious instruction wholly without it.

The public schools of England are in a transition state, with legislation pending of sufficien importance to affect party issues and the stability of the ministry. The public interest hinges mainly upon the proposed treatment of religious instruction, which the opposition interpret as too favorable to the Catholic and the Anglican (Episcopa churches.

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