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Synonyms are often used in the Talmud, as well as nicknames. The titles were bestowed by the professors of the colleges, and the document was written and testified to by the college seal.

The early authors of the Talmud are called Tanaim (legislators), the later contributors Amoraim (a term which means sea captains, who knew how to swim in the vast ocean of the Talmud). The term also means explainer, as they explained the laws of the Tanaim, or legislators. Those contributors who lived before the final close of the Talmud had the titles of Rabanon Saburai (rabbis of explanations). In Babylon the title of the spiritual prince was Reish Gola, the head of the exile, who got his title through hereditary election and indorsement by the Persian King. The Reish Golas, or the Exilearchs, were far inferior to the spiritual princes of Palestine, although the former executed a more forcible power. The professor of the college in Babylon had the title of Rosh Jeshiba, head of the sitting, as in previous times the students had listened standing to the lectures, and when this custom was abolished they called the college the "sitting."

When the Exilarchy was abolished, a new title was instituted, Gaon, or exalted, a title which was not appended to any office, except as the mark of great learning. One of the most noted of the exalted ones was Rabbi Saadje Gaon, the thousandth anniversary of whose death was celebrated recently in the Jewish world.

The title of Gaon was conferred upon every Jew on the Asiatic and African continents, and on a few of the Spanish Jews who were rabbis during the Moorish reign. Among the European rabbis, only one, Rabbi Elijah Gaon, from Vilna, in Russia, who lived in the eighteenth century, enjoyed the title, and is still mentioned as "the Gaon."

FROM THE GREAT SYNOD UP TO THE TIME OF JEHOSHUA BEN GAMLA, THE HIGH PRIEST, OR EDUCATIONAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE.

When the Great Synod assembled at the call of Ezra the Scribe, the session lasted nearly century, one of its members being the high priest, Simon the Righteous, who lived at the time when Alexander the Great invaded Palestine.

The work of reorganization was a tremendous one, and the synod had to battle with difficulties of numberless obstacles. The condition of Palestine after the return was not very favorable. Most of the villages were mere piles of ruins; the husbandry was in a state of perfect neglect; the country was overrun with tramps and robbers and other kindred vagabonds; the bulk of the 50,000 who returned from the exile were very poor and ignorant. But the most dangerous foe they had to battle with was the Samaritans, who showed an ugly attitude of hostility toward the Great Synod, and the delay of the building of the Temple was due only to the Samaritans who wrote slanderous letters to the kings of Persia, who had a protectorate over Palestine. In spite of all these difficulties the synod proceeded from the beginning to enact educational laws, as only through them did they hope to revive the ancient national spirit, and improve the material condition of the country. The first law on the educational code was to make the father responsible for the education of his male children; the second law was to establish schools in Jerusalem, maintained by the public treasury of the Temple. As the people for safety flocked to Jerusalem, and the building of the Temple drew a multitude of laborers, the city soon became very populous and strengthened. As soon as the building of the Temple was finished, people flocked to Palestine from the neighboring States and countries, from Egypt, Arabia, and Asia Minor. These people brought with them not only material wealth, but also the culture and civilization of the countries from which they came. Jerusalem was restored and made a national center, from which as a basis operations were extended throughout Palestine to root out those tramps and highwaymen. Order began to prevail, villages sprang up, and husbandry flourished again around the beautiful plains of En Gedi. Hand in hand with the national material progress went marching onward the educational spirit, and the educator

!

did the same pioneer work as the soldier. By breaking up the priestly hierarchy and by creating new offices, as the supreme court, the sanhedrim, consisting of 71 members, and the creation of the little sanhedrim for the provinces, consisting of 23 members, and the justice of the peace (beth din), of 3 members for every town, the Synod opened new avenues for the laity, spurred on by the educational spirit. (The Sanhedrim sat in the marble chamber in the Temple, having the jurisdiction over the whole nation and controlling all the educational departments and the public treasury of the Temple. No war could be declared without the sanction of that body. Trials of national importance, as that of a king or of the priest or the trial of an individual, which was of national importance, were held before the sanhedrim. The famous trial of Christ was before that body).

Outside of the Temple gate was the seat of the little sanhedrim, as in the capitals of each respective province that body was empowered to pass the death sentence in murder cases. The beth din, or the court of justice, in each town tried only civil

cases.

The great knowledge, sacred as well as profane, required by the law of every office seeker, indirectly compelled them to visit schools and obtain the diploma of professor of well-reputed colleges. After the dissolution of the Great Synod, its legislative power was invested in the Sanhedrim, and from time to time synods were called to assemble when some great reform was in view.

At the time of Simon ben Sotach, who lived in the year 105 B. C., and was the president of the Great Sanhedrim and the brother-in-law of King Janai, was made the rigid law that every child must attend the school. The Babylonian Talmud gives the credit of that law to the high priest Jehoshua ben Gamla, who lived in the year 65 B. C., and was executed later by the Zealots. In history the Babylonian Talmud is unreliable, as the Babylonians had a prejudice against the Palestinians and the Alexandrians, so the attitude of the Bablyonian Talmud toward Christ is different from that of the Jerusalem Talmud. No wonder that the name of Simon ben Sotach is not mentioned in the Babylonian Talmud, which has a great prejudice against his brother-in-law, the king, who, according to its narrative, was killing the sages, facts not mentioned in the Talmud of Jerusalem. The Babylonian Text concerning education runs as follows:

"For good shall be remembered the name of that man Jehoshua ben Gamla, for only for his sake the law has been preserved thus far; he who was able brought his child to Jerusalem to attend school, or he whose father was a learned man was taught the law too. So they legislated to establish schools in every capital of the respective provinces. But as this was still insufficient Jehoshua ben Gamla legislated that the children from 6 years of age must attend school in each city, town, ⚫ or village."

The fact that Simon ben Sotach is not mentioned is rather surprising, and many have tried to make it appear that Simon ben Sotach legislated only for the provincial capitals while Jehoshua ben Gamla extended the law to all communities. From both Talmuds it would seem that they were not the lawmakers, but only enforced the laws already existing in regard to education in a rigid manner-as is often the case with many laws at various times in different ages and in almost every country. Why the Babylonian Talmud does not mention Simon ben Sotach and the Talmud of Jerusalem does not mention the martyr Jehoshua ben Gamla have both an inner historical reason.

At the near approach of the close of the Great Synod, Jerusalem was peopled by nearly a million inhabitants, more than the whole population of the rest of the country at that time, hence the first educational laws legislated by the synod were those relating to suffrage for the whole country, for at that time it could be said that all Palestine was in Jerusalem, as in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries it was said that all France was in Paris.

The historical evidences of the great educational power are: The six divisions of the Mishna, the two great encyclopedias of the two Talmuds, with the numberless

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CHAPTER XLVII.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF

EDUCATION.

[From 1867 to 1895.]

1. Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1867-68. Barnard. 8°. pp. xl+856.

2. Special Report of the Commissioner of Education on the condition and improvement of public schools in the District of Columbia. Barnard. 8°. pp. 912. Washington, 1871. (Reprinted as Barnard's Am. Jour. of Education, vol. 19.)

3. Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education for the year 1870. Eaton. 8°. pp. 579. Washington, 1870.

1871. Eaton. 8°.

1872. Eaton. 80.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

1877.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

pp. 715. Washington, 1872.

pp. lxxxviii+1018. Washington, 1873.
pp. clxxviii+870. Washington, 1874.
pp. clii +935. Washington, 1875.
pp. clxxiii + 1016. Washington, 1876.
pp. ccxiii+942. Washington, 1878.
pp. cevi+641. Washington, 1879.

1873. Eaton. 8°.
1874. Eaton. 8°.
1875. Eaton. 8°.
1876. Eaton. 8°.
Eaton. 8°.
1878. Eaton. 8°. pp cci +730. Washington, 1880.
1879. Eaton. 80. pp. ccxxx+757. Washington, 1881.
1880. Eaton. 8°. pp. cclxii+914. Washington, 1882.
1881. Eaton. 8°. pp. cclxxvii+840. Washington, 1883.
1882-83. Eaton. 8°. pp. ccxciii+872. Washington, 1884.
1883-84. Eaton. 8°. pp. celxxi+943. Washington, 1885.
1884-85. Eaton-Dawson. 8. pp. cccxvii +848. Washington, 1886.
1885-86. Dawson. 8°. pp. xxi 792. Washington, 1887.
1886-87. Dawson. 8°. pp. 1170.

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21. Illiteracy, derived from census tables of 1860; Educational statistics, translation of article by Dr. A. Ficker; Virchow on schoolroom diseases; Education of French and Prussian conscripts; School organization, etc. pp. 70. (Circ. inf. August, 1870.)

22. Public instruction in Sweden and Norway; The "folkehoiskoler" of Denmark. By C. C. Andrews. pp. 48. (Circ. inf. July, 1871.)

23. Methods of school discipline. By Hiram Orcutt. pp. 14. (Circ. inf. November, 1871.

24. Compulsory education. By L. Van Bokkelen. pp. 17. (Circ. inf. December, 1871.)

25. German and other foreign universities. By Herman Jacobson. pp. 43. (Circ. inf. January, 1872.) 26. Public instruction in Greece, the Argentine Republic, Chile, and Ecuador; Statistics respecting Portugal and Japan; Technical education in Italy. By John M. Francis, George John Ryan, T. M. Tanaka. pp. 77. (Circ. inf. February, 1882.)

statistics of college graduates; Distribution of college students in 1870-71; Vital statistics e United States, with diagrams. By Charles Warren. pp. 93. (Circ. inf. March, 1872.)

on of education to labor. By Ricbard J. Hinton. pp. 125. (Circ. inf. April, 1872.)

in the British West Indies. By Thomas H. Pearne. pp. 22. (Circ. inf. June, 1872.) garten. By Baroness Marenholtz-Bülow, tr. by Elizabeth P. Peabody. pp. 62. (Circ. v. 1872.)

a education at the Vienna Exposition of 1873. pp. 79. (Circ. inf. November, 1872.)

al summary and reports on the systems of public instruction in Spain, Bolivia, Uruguay, Portugal. pp. 66. (Circ. inf. 1, 1873.)

Es in British India. By Joseph Warren. pp. 30. (Circ. inf. 2, 1873.)

ge commencements for the summer of 1873, in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachuts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. pp. 118. (Circ. inf. 1873.)

213. Annual statement of the Commissioner of Education to the Secretary of the Interior, 1894. By W. T. Harris. pp. 29. (Misc. pub. 1894.)

214. Education in Alaska. By Sheldon Jackson. pp. 873-892. (Reprinted from An. Rept. of Commr. of Edu., 1891-92.) (Misc. pub. 1894.)

215. Introduction of domesticated reindeer into Alaska, with maps and illustrations. By Sheldon Jackson. pp. 187. (Reprint of Senate Executive Document No. 70, 53d Congress, second session.) (Misc. pub. 1894.)

216 Art and industry. Education in the industrial and fine arts in the United States. By Isaac Edwards Clarke. Part II. Industrial and manual training in public schools. pp. cxlviii+1338. 8°. Washington, 1892.

217. Annual Report of Commissioner of Education, 1892-93. Vol. I. pp. ix+1224.

218. Same. Vol. II. pp. v+1225-2153.

219. Annual statement of the Commissioner of Education to the Secretary of the Interior, 1895. pp. 27. 220. Education in Alaska, 1892-93. By Sheldon Jackson. (From. An. Rept. of Commissioner of Education, 1892-93. pp. 705-1795.)

221. Annual Report of Commissioner of Education, 1893-94. Vol. I.

222. Same. Vol. II.

223. Education at the World's Columbian Exposition (1893), including reports and comments by American and foreign educators and delegates. (Reprinted from An. Rep. 1892-93. pp. 423-690.) 1896.

224. Papers prepared for the World's Library Congress held at the Columbian Exposition. Ed. by Melvil Dewey. pp. 691-1014. (Reprinted from An. Rep. 1892-93, Chap. IX.)

300. Our schools and our forests. By Franklin H. Hough. Address before Dept. of Superintendence Nat. Ed. Assoc., 1881. pp. 18. (Reprint from Circ. inf. 3, 1881.) (Miss. pub. 1881.)

301. Manual training. By C. M. Woodward. (Circ. inf. 2, 1889.)

302. Class intervals in city public schools. By James C. Boykin. pp. 3. (Misc. pub. 1893.) 303. What is education? Opinions of eminent men. pp. 16. (Misc. pub. 1870.)

304. Proceedings of the Dept. of Superintendence of the National Educational Association respecting State and city school reports. pp. 26. (Misc. pub. 1874.)

305. Industrial status and needs of the New South. By Robert Bingham. pp. 21. Delivered before the Dept. of Superintendence of the Nat. Ed. Assoc., February, 1884. (Misc. pub. 1884.) 306. Needs of education in the South. By Gustavus G. Orr. pp. 13. Delivered before the Dept. of Superintendence of the Nat'l Ed. Assoc., 1879. (Misc. pub. 1879.)

307. National aid to education. By John Eaton. Delivered before the Department of Superintendence of the Nat. Ed. Assoc., 1877. pp. 37. (Misc. pub. 1879.) 308. Needs of the Bureau of Education. of Nat'l Ed. Assoc., 1881. pp. 12. 309. Museums illustrative of education.

By John Eaton. Delivered before Dept. of Superintendence (Misc. pub. 1881.)

By John Eaton. Delivered before Dept. of Superintendence

of Nat. Ed. Assoc., 1881. pp. 12. (Misc. pub. 1881.) 310. The World's Columbian Exposition, department of liberal arts. Circular No. 2. The educational exhibit at the World's Columbian Exposition. pp. 10. (Misc. pub. --.)

311. World's Columbian Exposition, department of liberal arts. Circ. No. 4. The educational exhibit No. 2. Statistics by graphic methods. Wing frames; State maps. Display of school statistics. pp. 17. (Misc. pub. -.)

312. United States Bureau of Education, an office in the Interior Department, 1867-1888. Commis sioners: Henry Barnard, 1867-1870; John Eaton, 1870-1886; Nathaniel H. R. Dawson, 1886-1889. (Misc. pub. -.)

313. Technical education and industrial drawing. By Prof. Walter Smith. Delivered before the Dept. of Superintendence of Nat. Ed. Assoc., 1879. pp. 24. (Misc. pub. 1879.)

314. National schools of science, report on, by D. C. Gilman. pp. 20. (Reprinted from An. Rep. of U. S. Commissioner of Education for 1871. pp. 427-444.) (Misc. pub. 1872.)

315. Colleges and collegiate institutions in the United States. Statistics. pp. 11. (1871.) 316. International Exhibition, Philadelphia, 1876. Collections to illustrate the history of colleges, universities, professional schools, and schools of science. (1875.)

317. Prospectus of report of the Commissioner of Education for 1875. p. 1. 1875.

318. Chilean International Exposition of 1875, to be held at Santiago (educational programme). pp. 9. 1875.

319. Synopsis of proposed centennial; history of American education, 1776 to 1876. pp. 18. 1875.

320. Study of Anglo-Saxon. By F. A. March. pp. 10. (From An. Rep. 1876.)

321. Latin pronunciation. By W. G. Richardson. pp. 484-497. (From An. Rep. 1876.)

322. Pronunciation of Greek in this country. By James R. Boise. pp. 430-483. (From An. Rep. 1876.) 323. Education at the Paris Exposition, 1879. pp. 9. (From Circ. inf. 2, 1879.)

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325. Report on education in Alaska, with maps and illustrations. By Sheldon Jackson. pp. 89. 1886. 326. Bureau of Education. Ohio Valley and Central States Centennial Exposition, July 4 to October

28, 1888. Exhibit of the Bureau. Compiled by John W. Holcombe. (Folding sheet.) pp. 8. 16°. 327. Annual statement of the Commissioner of Education to the Secretary of the Interior; being introductory chapter of the An. Rep. 1888-89. By N. H. R. Dawson. pp. 28.

329. Report of the Commissioner of Education to the Secretary of the Interior, 1887. pp. 26. 1887.

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