CHAPTER XXI. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. France, Republic: Area, 204,092 square miles; population, 38,517,975 (1896). PREVIOUS ARTICLES. The educational system of France. (Report, 1888-89, Vol. 1, pp. 112–149.) Report of the educational congresses and exhibition held in Paris, 1889. (Report, 1889-90, Vol. 1, pp. 41-186, by W. H. Widgery.) Brief view of the educational system, with statistics for 1888-89. (Report, 1889-90, Vol. 1, pp. 249–261.) Elementary education in London and Paris. (Ibid., pp. 263–280.) Education in France: Statistics, 1890-91; progress of primary schools since Guizot's law, 1833; higher primary and classical schools of France. (Report, 1890-91, Vol. 1, pp. 95-124.) Education in France: Outline of the system, and statistics for 1892; State faculties; proposed transformations and development of teaching functions. (Report, 1891-92, Vol. 1, pp. 73–95.) Civil service in France, by W. F. and W. W. Willoughby. (Ibid., pp. 369-412.) Education in France: Outline view, with current statistics; inspection of infant schools; recent changes in the baccalaureate; reorganization of medical studies and of the scientific course preparatory thereto. (Report, 1892-93, Vol. 1, pp. 219-237.) Education in France: Statistics for 1891-92-93; recent modifications in the department of secondary education; recent development of the faculties (universities); progress of the system of primary instruction; schools for adults; movements for the admission of American students to the universities of France. (Report, 1894-95, Vol. 1, pp. 289–312.) Education in France: Statistics for 1894-95; summarized view of primary schools; proposed modifications of secondary institutions; the law of July 10, 1896, transforming the State faculties into universities; status of medical students in France, with special reference to foreigners; Dr. Alcée Fortier on the French lycées. (Report, 1895-96, Vol. 1, pp. 611–639.) Education in France: Statistics, current and comparative; opening of the universities under the law of July 10, 1896; the new doctorate open to foreigners; state secondary schools vs. church establishments; the law of July, 1893, respecting salaries of teachers of primary schools; the superior primary schools, progress, organization, and scope; M. Boutmy on the reform of the baccalaureate; M. Bréal on the study of Greek. (Report, 1896-97, Vol. 1, pp. 29–70.) Education in France: Statistics, 1896; the decentralizing movement; the reconstruction of the universities; efforts for strengthening the moral influence of the schools; temperance instruction; manual training and technical schools; report of Mr. Charles Copland Perry on technical education in France; the admission of American students into French universities; review of the career of M. Victor Duruy, minister of public instruction, 1863-1869, by the Duc de Broglie; review of the work of M. Henri Marion, first professor of the science of education at the Sorbonne, by M. F. Buisson. (Report, 1897-98, Vol. 1, pp. 694–788.) Topical outline.-Brief conspectus of the system of public education in France-Summarized statistics-Current record of the universities organized under the law of 1896-Tabular view, 1887 and 1897-Admission of foreign students to French universities-The University Doctorate created under decree of 1897-Current record of primary schools: Review of the work of the Republic in respect to primary education, by M. Maurice-Faure; relative enrollment in public and parochial schools at specified dates from 1881-82 to 1895-96; number of certificates awarded to pupils at specified dates; teachers, number and classification; school libraries, number and State appropriations for-State appropriations for primary education, 1887, 1892, 1898-Antialcoholic instruction in French schools-Movement for prolonging education-Statistics of illiteracy-Department of secondary education: Interest of the Government in respect to secondary education-Congress of Secondary Professors-Commission of Inquiry appointed by the Chamber of Deputies-First report of Commission: Scope of inquiry as set forth in the introduction; statistics of secondary schools discussed by M. Gréard, vice-rector of the Academy of Paris, by the Abbé Batiffol, and by M. Levasseur-Depositions of M. Berthelot, of M. Lavisse, of M. Michel Bréal-The educational system of the Christian Brothers: Deposition of Brother Justinus, general secretary of the Order of the Brothers of Christian Schools. BRIEF CONSPECTUS OF THE SYSTEM OF PUBLIC EDUCATION. The system of public education in France comprises three departments, primary, secondary, and higher under centralized control. The chief of the system is a cabinet officer, the minister of public instruction (at present, M. Leygues). To the central administration belong the Superior Council of Public Instruction, the chiefs or directors of the three scholastic departments (superior, secondary, primary), the corps of general inspectors, and a large body of clerks or assistants. The functions of the Superior Council are advisory and in some cases disciplinary and judicial. The council consists of 60 members, one-fourth appointed by the President of the Republic and the remainder elected by their colleagues (professors and teachers). General inspectors, ten for secondary and a large number for primary instruction, are sent out annually from Paris to investigate and report upon the condition of colleges and schools in their respective jurisdictions. The State educational system (University of France) is organized in 17 academies (including one in Algiers). An academy comprises the university and associated lycées and colleges, and also the public primary schools within its limits. The head of the academy is the rector who is appointed by the President and subordinate only to the minister. The rector is assisted by an academic council composed of professors and officers of education. The chief officer of primary education under the rector is the academic inspector appointed by the minister. Primary inspectors, 450 in number or about one for every 150 schools, are subordinate to the academic inspector; they come into the most intimate relations with the schools and teachers, as their province is the inspection of the individual schools. The 90 departments of France are districts of educational administration within the academies; the prefect or civil chief of the department has certain authority in respect to primary schools. In particular he appoints the full teachers (titulaires), although his choice must be made from lists approved by the academy inspector. The prefect is assisted by a departmental council composed of school inspectors, teachers, and members of the civil council, which gives advice upon matters relating to the primary schools. The medical inspectors of communes and departments ar charged with the sanitary inspection of schools. The only local authorities concerned with education are the communal councils and mayors who select the sites for the school buildings and vote the funds for the expenditures at the charge of the commune, and local school committees (commissions scolaires) formed to encourage school attendance. To the department of superior instruction (Director, M. Liard) belong the universities and special schools of high order, which are under the minister of education.1 Paris is the seat of these special schools and also of the principal university. Under the law of 1896 fifteen of the former faculty groups have been organized into independent universities. They registered 28,782 students in 1898, an increase of 11,142 or 63 per cent above the number enrolled in the faculties in 1888. The professors of the State universities are appointed by the President of the Republic in advice with the minister of public instruction. The choice is made from two lists, one furnished by the University Council, the other by the Superior Council. The salaries of professors are paid by the State and they have right to a pension. To the department of secondary instruction (Director, M. Rabier) belong the lycées or State classical colleges for boys, the State lycées for girls, and the communal colleges established by the communal or local authorities and aided by the State. In 1897 the lycées for boys numbered 109, of which 18 were in Paris and enrolled 11,005 pupils, and 96 in the departments enrolling 41,422 pupils. The communal colleges numbered 227 with an enrollment of 32,412. This gives a total of 84,839 boys in the public secondary schools. The church secondary schools enrolled the same year 84,569 pupils and private secular secondary establishments 12,818. The professors of secondary instruction (public) are appointed by the minister of public instruction. Their salaries like those of the professors of superior instruction are paid by the State and they are also borne on the pension list. To the department of primary instruction belong the infant schools (écoles maternelles), the superior primary and elementary primary schools, and the primary normals. The primary normal schools, 87 for men and 85 for women, are established by the departments (law of June, 1833). In 1897 they enrolled 7,736 students (3,865 men, 3,871 women). Every commune must establish at least one public primary school for children of the legal school age, 6-13 (law of 1833 confirmed by later laws). The establishment of schools for children under 6 years of age (écoles maternelles) and of superior primary (high schools) is optional with the communes (see statistics, p. 1086). Public primary schools of all classes are free (law of June 16, 1881) secular (law of March 28, 1882), and only lay teachers may be employed in them (law of October 30, 1886). Instruction is obligatory for all children (law of March 28, 1882), but parents are free to choose the means. Parochial schools are thus recognized, although they are deprived of State support. The enrollment in public primary schools (elementary and superior) in 1897 was 4,189,506, a decrease of 54 per cent below that of 1887. The enrollment in private gain above 1887 of 23 per cent. private, in 1897 was, it appears, tion. primary schools chiefly parochial was 1,341,098, a The total enrollment in primary schools, public and 5,530,604, equivalent to 14 per cent of the popula No one is permitted to teach in any capacity in a public primary school unless provided with a State certificate. These certificates are the "brevet élémentaire," secured by examination or graduation from a normal school after a probationary term of service; the brevet supérieur and the "certificat d'aptitude pédagogique," both requiring examination and successful service. The State pays a fixed annual salary ranging for full teachers in the elementary 1 Collège de France, Museum of Natural History, Practical School of High Studies (École Pratique des Hautes Études), Superior Normal School, School of Charts (École Nationale des Chartes), School of Oriental Languages, French School of Archæology at Rome, French School at Athens. The remaining special schools, such as the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, École Nationale Supérieur des Mines, etc., are under the charge of other ministers. primaries from $200 to $400 for men, and for women from $200 to $320. In addition to his salary, every teacher must be provided with a residence or with a money equivalent for the same. The law imposes this provision upon the communes and fixes the rates of indemnity for residences. Primary teachers may be retired upon a pension after reaching 60 years of age, if they have been in the service 30 years. The minimum pension is for men $120 and for women $100 annually (law of June 9, 1853). The total State appropriation for the current expenses of public instruction in 1898 was $39,775,615, of which amount $30,890,707 was for primary instruction. The summarized statistics of the various classes of schools for the latest date of report are as follows: a From report to Chamber of Deputies, by M. Maurice-Faure, chairman of the financial committee (1899), pp. 248, 249. b1896, for public primaries only which enroll 75 per cent of the pupils in primary schools. CURRENT RECORD OF THE UNIVERSITIES OF FRANCE. The most important recent change in the State system of education is the passage of the law of 1896, transforming the "faculties" of higher education into organic universities. The constitution of the faculties had been gradually modified in preparation for this final measure by a series of decrees and laws (in particular, decrees of 1885 instituting a general council of the faculties of each académie with authority in both financial and scholastic affairs. This council becomes the university council under the new law. (Laws of July 18, 1889, and of April 18, 1893, regulating finances). Before the passage of the law of 1896 higher education was wholly under the control of the ministry of public education, the fifteen universities created under the law (one in each academy having the four faculties of letters, sciences, law, and medicine) have a large measure of independence; their affairs are regulated by their own councils, they have control of their own property and of the fees received from students for registration, matriculation, laboratory and library facilities, etc., and they are authorized to confer a doctor's degree (the university doctorate) which is distinct from the State degrees con ferred by the examining bodies designated by the minister for that purpose. This last power greatly enhances the value of the universities for foreign students.1 The universities have also to assume responsibilities from which the State faculties were free. The fees which they retain must be applied strictly to increasing the facilities for study and the equipment of laboratories and libraries, the maintenance of new courses, etc. The State no longer makes appropriation for these purposes. Henceforth also the funds for new buildings must come from the private funds of the universities. Thus local pride and local resources must be depended upon for much that is essential to the maintenance of higher education. The outlook for the leading universities is bright, but doubt is expressed as to the ability of the smaller universities to maintain their prestige. In some the tendency is already manifest to concentrate their resources on specialties favored by their location; it is even possible that one or two of the universities will become technical institutions of high grade and attract by this means a new class of students. Since the passage of the law the University of Paris has effected a loan of $340,000 for the construction of new laboratories for the Faculty of Science, the University of Lyons has borrowed $18,000 for the completion of the chemical institute and $12,000 for the completion of the maritime laboratory of Tamaris and the archæological museum; Poitiers has promised $14,000 for the installation of its university library; Nancy has received $80,000 from local manufacturers for the erection or enlargement of laboratories. Since the 1st of January, 1898, the date at which the new law went. into effect, several universities have increased the number of their chairs and assistant professorships. Paris has added in the Faculty of Law a chair of the history of Roman public law and an auxiliary course in the history of treaties; in the Faculty of Letters an auxiliary course in experimental physiology and three assistant professorshipsin medicine and pharmacy. Lille has added to the Faculty of Letters a special course in French literature and in French grammar for foreign students, and a course in German philosophy for students of medicine who are candidates for the school of military hygiene. Similar growth has taken place in the universities of Lyons, of Aix-Marscille, of Bordeaux, of Caen, of Montpellier. The development of courses of local interest is also noticeable. Among these are: TheHistory of Provence and of the Provençal language and literature at Aix-Marseille; colonial geography and Spanish at Bordeaux; Norman art, literature, customs, and dialect at Caen; Celtic language and literature at Rennes. These and similar movements in other university 1 For the requirements for foreign candidates seeking admission to the French universities seep. 1089. ED 99-69 |