fessors to the medical department of the university: Drs. Wernich, Gierke, Schultze, Langgaard, Martin, Tiegel, Baelz, Diesse, Scriba, Van der Heyden, and others.1

Outside the Imperial University there were men eminent as teachers of medicine. Dr. Faulds, a Scottish missionary, founded Tsukiji Hospital and introduced Lister's system of antiseptic treatment. Dr. J. C. Hepburn, of the Presbyterian board, began medical work at Yokohama (Kanagawa) in October, 1859, and through his clinical instruction trained many Japanese who rose to prominence in medicine. The Japanese state hospital was for years in charge of Dr. Simmons as surgeon in chief. Drs. Wheeler and Anderson from 1874 to 1879 laid the foundations of the naval hospital, and Dr. Benkema those of the military hospital.

At Hakodate two Russian surgeons gathered medical classes in 1858 and 1859. They were Surgeons Albrecht and Zalisky, of the imperial royal navy. When Dr. Stewart Eldridge took up their work in 1872, permanent hospitals were established in the northern island of Yezo, of which Hakodate is the chief port. In Osaka, about 1868, a second military medical college was established and put in charge of Dr. Bowdin, who was succeeded in 1871 by Dr. Emerens. In 1873, the St. Barnabas Hospital, as it is now known, was opened in Osaka by Dr. Lanning of the Presbyterian board. Dr. Vedder, surgeon in the United States Navy, opened the first hospital in Kobe. Here Dr. J. C. Berry, of the American board, became director of the new government hospital, and in 1873 gained the first permission to dissect human bodies. Dr. Thornicraft was associated with him in his important work. We refer in particular to those in charge of hospitals as well as medical colleges, because the hospital is an essential in medical education. And furthermore, much instruction was given to medical students in hospitals before the system of colleges was perfected.

German influence is again seen in the pharmacopoeia compiled by the central sanitary bureau, which largely follows the German classification, and came out first in the German language. The foreign medical literature relating to Japan finds most eminent exponents.3 There has arisen a school of eminent Japanese whose skill in general practice or in specialization is a satisfactory indication of the future place of western medicine in Japan.

This section, on the sources of the new education in Japan, would

1 Transactions of the Asiatic Society for Japan, vol. 12, July, 1885, Dr. W. N. Whitney.

2 Transactions of the Asiatic Society for Japan, vol. 12, July, 1885, Dr. W. N. Whitney. tory of Protestant Missions in Japan, Verbeck, pp. 44 and 63.

His

The better known include Drs. Wilhelm Ten Rhyne, Kaempfer, Mohnike, Siebold, Hoffman, Wernich, Hilgendorf, Geerts, Simmons, Scheube, Baelz, Anderson, Eldridge, Faulds, Taylor, and Berry. Transactions Asiatic Society for Japan, vol. 12, p. 385 (Whitney).

Among prominent Japanese physicians in Tokyo, have been mentioned Drs. Matsumoto, Ikeda, Hashimoto, Miyake, Sasaki, Sato, Takaki, Totsuka, Shimidzu, Mume, Harada, Kagawa,

and Osawa. Ibid., p. 388.

not be complete without taking into account the number of foreign professors employed. In 1895 the system had reached the stage where it was anxious to "walk alone." The foreigners in the department of education and in the colleges under its immediate control, as distinguished from the institutions controlled by the Fu, Ken, or Gun, were as follows:

Foreigners in the institutions of the department of education.

They received the annual salary of 103,020 yen, or an average of 3,323 yen each. The yen may be roughly estimated at half a gold dollar.

A larger showing of foreigners is made when we consider all public and private institutions.

Foreign instructors in State, other public, and private institutions, a

Of the total of 268 foreign instructors in all classes of Japanese institutions, it is to be remarked that 202 were engaged in what are termed miscellaneous schools-i. e., schools which may make a specialty of English, literature, law, etc., but which on other subjects. may have a deficient curriculum. Here are also grouped mission schools.

5. SUCCESS OF THE GENERAL SCHEME.

The strength or weakness of education in Japan will appear later under the third main section, where the common schools, middle schools, higher institutions, and universities are discussed separately. We are treating the system as a whole at present.

The first educational code was promulgated in 1872, and in 1891, though twenty years had not passed, the Government was teaching 3,630,000 pupils. Although Dr. Rein, of Germany, has written the most complete work on Japan, yet he makes meager reference to education. However, this important observation is made:

Accordingly, of all the innovations made during the Meiji period, those are justly regarded as most important which emanated from the department of education, and had in view a better and more liberal training of the Japanese youth.

In 1880, that remarkable traveler, Miss E. L. Bird, wrote in her Unbeaten Tracks in Japan: "Nothing is more surprising than the efforts which the Government is making to educate the people." Western learning is in universal demand. 3

The national educational plan has six distinct classes of institutions. As the nomenclature is not familiar to an American, an explanation is necessary.

This comparison is little more than suggestive. It shows (1) that the system is more closely graded in the higher courses than ours; (2) that it presupposes graduate work at least in the colleges of the university, as no A. B. degree is conferred until students have finished, not the "higher" institutions, but the colleges of the university; and no doctor's degrees are conferred until the course in the university hall is completed."

The educational department estimates the total number of pupils in 1873 at 400,000. Japan Mail, January 23, 1874. Outlines of modern education in Japan, p. 7.

2 Rein's Japan, p. 429.

3 Mrs. Elizabeth Bird Bishop, F. R. G. S. Dr. S. H. Wainwright in Student Missionary Enterprise, p. 174. Yankees of the East, vol. 2, p. 381.

4 See p. 291.

Comparative status of education in Japan in 1895 and 1896,1

Special schools are designed as institutions in which special instruction is given in such subjects of study as medicine, pharmacy, law, political economy, literature, and science.

Thus, by taking the last Government report, issued in September, 1898, for the year 1896, we find the educational status of all grades to be as follows:

Total number of institutions 28,404, of which 1,762 are private; total number of professors and teachers 84,014, of whom 5,509 are in private institutions; total number of students or pupils 4,030,973, of whom 148,858 are in private institutions.

SECTION III.-ANALYSIS OF THE NEW EDUCATION.

In treating of education in Japan, as in any western country, a beginning may be made with the common schools.

1. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.

2

The elementary schools are of two grades, ordinary and higher. They are "designed to give children the rudiments of moral education and of education especially adapted to make of them good members of the community, together with such general knowledge and skill as are necessary for practical life, due attention being paid to their physical development." The course of study in the lowest grade must cover three years, and may cover four. In the higher department of the common schools the course of study varies from two to four years in length. The schools are supported by the cities, towns, or villages, or by several villages in conjunction. Private individuals are welcome to establish elementary schools from their own means. In 1896 there were 539 such schools, as against 26,294 supported by the public. It is an interesting fact that elementary

1 Japanese Government Reports, 1895 and 1896, pp. 22 and 27, respectively.

2 Japanese Government Report, 1896, p. 28.

ED 99-18

agriculture is being introduced as a study, and that sewing and needle work are taught the girls in over 4,000 elementary schools.

The school age is a period of eight years, from the sixth to the fourteenth year of the child's life. Each city, town, or village appoints school directors and inspectors. The system of elementary schools was first upon the American plan, but at present is more largely GerThe first remodeling took place in 1886 and was extended in

man.

1890.1

SCHOOL ATTENDANCE.

One of the first tests to put to a national common school system is its relation to the school population. The Government reports give the following:

a Excluding those excused from attendance by the Government.

This table records the fact that, in 1885, of the school population 49.62 per cent were under instruction; in 1895, 61.24 per cent; and 1896, 64.32 per cent. From 1885 to 1897 the effectiveness of the school system is seen in that it raised the per cent under instruction from 49.62 to 64.22. The present status compares favorably with that in the United States, where, in 1897, there was 69.50 per cent of school population under instruction.2

There is a compulsory educational law in Japan, and school committees are expected to enforce attendance except in certain cases of sickness and poverty. Parents or guardians are also enjoined to compel the attendance of children. Of those who did not attend the prescribed course in 1896 the following statement can be made:

3

2 That is, 69.50 per cent of the children from 5 to 18 years of age. In the United States probably more than 90 per cent of the children from 6 to 14 years of age attend school.-ED.

3 Specimen Regulations for Compulsory Attendance. Outlines of Modern Education in Japan,

p. 23.

4 Japanese Government Report, 1896, p. 43.