Teachers in public elementary schools, classified by age.

It is seen from this table that almost three-fourths of the teachers who are normal graduates are between the ages of 25 and 45-the most effective teaching period. Over half of the teachers without normal training are between 25 and 45 years of age.

DIAGRAM NO. 3.—Ages of teachers in public elementary schools (1896).
Number between 45 and 60 years.

Number under 25 years of age.

Number between 25 and 45 years of age.

Total number of teachers.

Turning from the ages of teachers to the question of teachers' qualifications, we present the following table showing the number of applicants and of those who passed the prescribed tests for licenses as elementary school-teachers, conducted by local authorities (1896):

An examination of the above table furnishes another argument for the normal school. There were 13,276 applicants for regular licenses who had not been through the normal schools. Of these 5,494 failed to pass the examinations. Of the 2,200 normal graduates who took examinations all but 7 passed and received licenses. Of the 14,330 applicants for assistants' places who had had no normal privileges 7,573, or over half, failed to pass, but all the 59 normal graduates received permission to teach. That is, of all normal applicants only 7 were plucked, while in the other class 13,067 were plucked, or almost half who attempted the examinations without previously taking normal courses.

An interesting comparison may be made between the status of normal educated-teachers in the educational systems of Germany, Switzerland, New England, and Japan. Considering the very proficient normal schools of the two former countries, the showing of the latter is not discouraging.

DIAGRAM NO. 4.—Proportion of school-teachers who are normal graduates.

Japan is a fraction of a per cent in advance of New England, while both are far behind Germany and Switzerland. In these latter countries all the elementary school-teachers are the product of the normal schools. This points to the reason why Japan of late has drawn more help from Germany than from America for her normal-school system.1

b United States Education Report, 1892-93, vol. 1, pp. 203-207.

CA. Tolman Smith in same report, pp. 219-224. School attendance is for France and Algiers. dJ. A. Baines, C. S. L., quoted in United States Education Report, 1832-93, vol. 1, pp 261-278. The population includes only British provinces and those native states under British rule. e For 1892-93, United States Education Report, p. 23.

1 Dr. L. R. Klemm in United States Education Report, 1891-92, vol. 1, pp. 155–156.

In other words, the per cent of the population that was under instruction in elementary schools at the time the figures were taken is as follows:

Japan, 10 per cent; Great Britain, 15 per cent; France, 14.5 per cent; India, 1.66 per cent; and United States, 20.4 per cent.

DIAGRAM NO. 5.-Per cent of population attending elementary schools.

The English equivalent to the Japanese name for secondary schools is "ordinary middle schools," and it is these of which mention will now be made. The ordinary middle schools of Japan occupy a place corresponding to the last year of the grammar and first two of the high schools and academies of America.

They were first defined in the code of 1872, and in 1888 the division was made into ordinary and higher middle schools. The latter were segregated and finally became the present higher schools (or colleges). The law provides that ordinary middle schools must be established either by the cities or by private individuals. There are 121 such institutions enrolling 40,577 students. Of the total, 20 schools are of "private" origin.

COURSES OF STUDY.

The course of study extends over five years. Besides the general studies, which entirely engage the pupil's attention up to the fourth year, there is from there on an important elective. The middle schools have a double purpose: (1) To fit students for the "higher schools," or colleges, and (2) to prepare them to immediately enter "practical pursuits." If the pupil has the latter object in mind, from the beginning of his fourth year he may elect a supplementary technical course. Provision is also made for the introduction of technical studies during the entire five years of study where the local authorities deem it prudent. In such cases courses in agriculture, industry, and commerce are provided. It should be noted that the Japanese lay the foundation for their technical education in the preparatory institutions. The required hours appear to be twenty-eight per week during the course.2

1 Outlines of Modern Education in Japan, p. 8.

2 Japanese Government Report, 1890.

Curriculum of the ordinary middle school,1

Subject.

1. Ethics

2. Japanese language and Chinese literature

3. First foreign language (English).

4. Second foreign language (German or French).

5. Geography of the world.

6. Japanese and foreign history

7. Mathematics: Geometry, review arithmetic, algebra, etc., advanced algebra, trigonometry, etc

8. Natural history: Physiology, hygiene, zoology, botany

9. Physics, chemistry, and electricity.

10. Writing....

11. Drawing..

12. Singing

13. Gymnastics

It appears that the subject most insisted on in the secondary schools is the English language; that the Japanese language and Chinese literature, studied as related themes, are second; gymnastics receives more attention than mathematics or history, and far more than ethics. The explanation of the anomaly is in the fact that through training of the body Japan hopes to repair the physical defects of the people. Considering the facts in the case, this seems an eminently wise provision.

Status of ordinary middle schools,

[From various reports.]

1885.

1890.

1896.

1897.

Year.

Public. Private. Total. Public. Private. Total. Public. Private. Total.

This table points to the fact that the weeding-out process from 1885 to 1890 reduced the middle schools almost half. Then began the building-up process until in 1896 there were more schools than in 1885, with nearly 700 more teachers and 25,000 more pupils than at the earlier date. The private schools are seen to be fewer in number, and smaller in teaching force and in attendance than the public schools. But on closer examination it is seen that the average number of teachers in each private school is 16, while in each public school the average number is 13.8. The average number of pupils to each teacher in private schools is 19.4, while in the public schools the average number is 24.8. Thus we conclude that though inferior in number the private schools are better equipped in their teaching force.

1 Japanese Government Report, 1890.

DIAGRAM NO. 6.-Graduates of middle schools and their occupations (1396).

The results of the secondary-school system may be tested by inquiring into the occupations of those who graduate therefrom. The Government has taken pains to do this, and the accompanying chart illustrates the result.

The whole circle stands for the total number who finished the course of the ordinary middle schools in 1896. It will be seen that threefifths entered higher institutions, that one-eleventh entered the army, and that one twenty-eighth became teachers.

3. HIGHER SCHOOLS.

Having finished with preparatory and secondary education, we take up with higher schools the consideration of higher education in Japan. The Japanese word "gakko" may be translated "school" or "college;” either English word is its equivalent. In the English phraseology adopted by the department of state for education for