mon. as they call him, though he be (as you know) bigger than ever was any giant, yea and pointed to of us even with our finger. The study of natural philosophy. But they be in the course of the stars, and the movings of the heavenly spheres very expert and cunning. They have also wittily excogitated and devised instruments of divers fashions: wherein is exactly comprehended and contained the movings and situations of the sun, the moon and all the other stars, which appear in their horizon. But as for the amities and dissensions of the planets, and all that deceitful divination by the stars, they never as much as dreamed thereof. Rains, winds, and other courses of tempests they know before by certain tokens, which they have learned by long use and observation. But of the causes of all these things and of the ebbing, flowing and saltness of the sea, and finally of the original beginning and nature of heaven and of the world, they hold partly the same opinions that our old philosophers hold, and partly, as our philosophers vary among themselves, so they also, whiles they bring new reasons of things, do disagree from all them, and yet among themselves in all points they do not accord. The learning of Greek by the Utopians. In the exercise and study of the mind they be never weary. When they had heard me speak of the Greek literature or learning (for in Latin there was nothing that I thought they would greatly allow, besides historians and poets) they made wonderful earnest and importunate suit unto me that I would teach and instruct them in that tongue and learning. I began therefore to read unto them, at the first truly more because I would not seem to refuse the labor, than that I hoped that they would anything profit therein. But when I had gone forward a little, I perceived incontinent by their diligence, that my labor should not be bestowed in vain. For they began so easily to fashion their letters, so plainly to pronounce the words, so quickly to learn by heart, and so surely to rehearse the same, that I marvelled at it, saving that the most part of them were fine and chosen wits and of ripe age, picked out of the company of the learned men, which not only of their own free and voluntary will, but also by the commandment of the counsel [council] undertook to learn this language. Therefore, in less than three years space, there was nothing in the Greek tongue that they lacked. The three years' course of Greek reading. They were able to read good authors without any stay, if the book were not false. This kind of learning, as I suppose, they took so much the sooner, because it is somewhat allyaunte [=allied, kindred] to them. For I think that this nation took their beginning of the Greeks, because their speech, which in all other points is not much unlike the Persian tongue, keepeth divers signs and tokens of the Greek language in the names of their cities and of their magistrates. They have of me (for when I was determined to enter into my iiii. voyage, I cast into the ship in the stead of merchandize a pretty fardel [=bundle] of books, because I intended to come again rather never, than shortly) they have, I say, of me the most part of Plato's works, more of Aristotle's, also Theophrastus of plants, but in divers places (which I am sorry for) unperfect. For whiles we were a-shipboard, a marmoset chanced upon the book, as it was negligently laid by, which wantonly playing therewith plucked out certain leaves, and tore them in pieces. Of them that have written the grammar, they have only Lascaris. For Theodorus I carried not with me, nor never a dictionary but Hesichius, and Dioscorides. They set great store by Plutarch's books. And they be delighted with Lucian's merry conceits and jests. Of the poets, they have Aristophanes, Homer, Euripides, and Sophocles in Aldus' small print. Of the historians they have Thucydides, Herodotus, and Herodian. Also my companion, Tricius Apinatus, carried with him physic books, certain small works of Hippocrates and Galen's Microtechne [or Ars parva]. The which book they have in great estimation. The printing of books and making of paper in Utopia. For when we showed to them Aldus his print in books of paper, and told them of the stuff whereof paper is made, and of the feat of graving letters, speaking somewhat more, than we could plainly declare (for there was none of us, that knew perfectly either the one or the other) they forthwith very wittily [=cleverly] conjectured the thing. And whereas before they wrote only in skins, in barks of trees, and in reeds, now they have attempted to make paper, and to imprint letters. And though at the first it proved not all of the best, yet by often essaying the same, they shortly got the feat of both. * * * With (Translated by Works connected with the history of education written by Sir T. More: Sir Thomas More.) Reprint in the Tudor Library. D. Nutt & Son. 1890. 4to. 2. Lac Puerorum. (A Latin Grammar by J. Holt, with two epigrams by Sir Thomas More.) (1510?) 4to. T. Mori * * epistolae. 1642. fol. 4. Epistola T. Mori ad Academiam Oxon. [reproaching the University for the neglect of the Greek language] * * ** etc. Oxford, 1633. 4to. 5. Letter written by Sir T. More, concerning the education of his family, to Mr. Gunnel, their domestic tutor, in a volume: Hints on Education. 1821. 12mo. 6. The Lady's Monitor; selected from the writings of Lady Jane Grey, * ** Sir Thomas More, etc. (Six letters of More.) 1828. 8vo. 7. Epigrammatica. Apud J. Frobenium. Basiliæ, 1518. 4to. Amongst the books on Sir Thomas More may be mentioned: 1. Thomas Morus und sein berühmtes Werk Utopia. (German translation and bibliography) by E. M. Oettinger. Leipzig, 1846. 2. Thomas Morus, by R. Baumstark. 1879. Freiburg in Breisgau. 3. Nisard (M.D.). Etudes sur la Renaissance. Renaissance et Réforme. Érasme, T. Morus, etc. 1855. Pt. 2, 1877. CHAPTER XI. MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS ABROAD." Translated from Handbuch der Schulhygiene, 2d edition, of Dr. Leo Burgerstein and Dr. August Netolitzky. Contents: Arguments in favor of medical inspection-Teachers should not act as sanitary inspectors-Physicians alone competent-Financial considerations-Purpose of medical inspection-Mortality of children-Diseases among school children-Inspection of boarding establishments-Teacher's sympathy needed-Medical inspection in Europe and America-Regulations for medical inspection-Permanency of position of school physicians-Official or private physicians— Duties of school physicians-Should school physicians treat sick children? ARGUMENTS IN FAVOR OF MEDICAL INSPECTION. The organism of children is yet, during their school life, in the full course of development, and, consequently, the more sensitive their organs are the more easily they retain the mental and physical impressions received. If the influence of these impressions is not watched and regulated, permanent injuries may result. This applies not only to disturbances of bodily health, but to the origin and development of evil qualities of character and diseased states of the mind. As far as schools are concerned, the causes of disease among school children are to be found mainly in the long deprivation of freedom, the restricted benefit of pure fresh air, the unaccustomed quiet position in sitting, the confined activity of the muscles, and premature and often protracted mental effort. Although rural school buildings are, as a rule, most deficient in hygienic arrangements, still country pupils have a great advantage over city school children, in that they enjoy in full measure exercise in the open air, which is the chief condition of harmonious physical development. For example, pupils of country schools seldom suffer from myopia, because they are seldom, if at all, engaged outside of school in any work which weakens the vision. Diseases that occur in like manner among city and country school children are mainly attributable to deficient light, badly designed seats, or unhygienic appliances for instruction, principally, however, to insufficient ventilation of crowded and closed schoolrooms. The sanitary significance of the exacting mental work implied in a forced mastery of studies is not to be underrated. Generally the progress of education, at the present day, causes great demands to be made upon the knowledge and ability of each individual and, in consequence, public schools must afford their pupils an amount of knowledge hardly required of adults fifty years ago. Unfortunately the bounds of moderation are not always observed in this regard. A moderate, thorough knowledge is not deemed sufficient. The main stress of instruction is placed upon much knowledge rather than upon the development and training of the judgment; the memory is burdened with many unessentials, so that the youthful brain accumulates a confused mass of superficial knowledge, which is quickly forgotten after school days are over. Inappropriate methods of instruc a Articles on similar topics in previous Reports: "Medical inspection of schools," An. Rep. 18991900, chap. 14, p. 825; Mental fatigue in school," An. Rep. 1894-95, chap. 10, p. 449, and An. Rep. 1895-96, chap. 23, p. 1175; “Medical inspection of schools," An. Rep. 1897-98, chap. 30, p. 1489. tion under unfavorable conditions may be the cause of physical and mental disease. The constantly increasing number of magnificent buildings and the introduction of hygienic arrangements for instruction, on the one hand, are manifestations of the growing care for the welfare of youth that deserve recognition; on the other, however, vigilance over other existing evils is only too lax. The knowledge that school buildings have well-constructed seats, sufficient ventilation, and plenty of light has caused inattention and carelessness toward dangers that threaten from other quarters. If we read the works of Cohn, Hertel, Von Hippel, Kafemann, Key, and others we shall see that a continuous supervision of schools and school children is most necessary out of regard for health. Myopia and scoliosis are on the increase; Bezold, Bresgen, and Schmiegelow prove that diseases of the nose, ear, and eye often go hand in hand with "poor talents." Many diseases frequently spread in the schools for a long time unrecognized and unobserved, so that the call for protective measures becomes more and more justified. It is gratifying to note that within recent years much has been done for the promotion of school hygiene. Though the attendant sacrifice has been great the results attained have been commensurate with the effort. To quote only a few instances: According to Desguin, since adequate sanitary precautions have been taken, diseases of the eye and skin are of much less frequent occurrence in the schools of Belgium, and contagious diseases have not spread. Kuborn gives more favorable figures respecting myopia among the school children of Liege, and, as Belliard states, cases of accommodation cramp are decidedly fewer in Nantes since hygienic measures have been taken. Many sanitary improvements have been effected without abridging or even disturbing class instruction, and without overburdening teachers. Most hygienic and sanitary evils may be nearly always remedied or prevented by an intelligent supervision of schools and pupils and by a proper employment of appropriate precautionary measures. A prompt and correct choice of these means, however, presupposes accurate knowledge and good understanding of the faults and deficiencies to be removed or supplied. Far from being perceptible at once, hurtful external influences frequently make themselves felt only after a long while; disease is not always easily and quickly perceived by the nonmedical eye, especially when it is of slow development and the first symptoms disclose themselves gradually and imperceptibly. A comprehensive technical knowledge is frequently required to establish and trace the connection between these and definite external influences. The physician alone possesses such knowledge, together with practical experience. TEACHERS SHOULD NOT ACT AS SANITARY INSPECTORS. Though the opinion has been advanced in various quarters that. the superintendence and regulation of the measures for the maintenance of health in schools can be given in charge of teachers, this view is based upon a misapprehension of actual conditions. The carrying out of a rational system of school hygiene presupposes comprehensive methods of investigation and profound special knowledge in all branches of the care of health, which can be attained only by a thorough study of medicine and never by self-instruction or autodidactic teaching. The examination of the eyes, spine, palate, and heart of new pupils, the signification of the observations made by mothers before their children have entered school, and the suggestions and instructions for a proper individual physical treatment of children presupposes a technical knowledge which one who is not an educated physician does not possess. Courses of lectures on somatology, school hygiene, and the care of health can no more replace the study of medicine than pedagogy, which presupposes a long term of practical experience, can be acquired during the few lessons of a course at a teachers' institute. Faulty, insufficient medical knowledge is a dangerous weapon in the hands of a nonprofessional and can only work harm. If-and not altogether unjustly-a newly graduated physician does not receive the full confidence of the people that may be given to an older, more experienced man, by so much the less can one who is not of the medical profession have, in regard to sanitary matters, a right understanding of the requirements of health and the hygienic measures to be taken to preserve it. The judging of sanitary questions is a matter for physicians, just as questions of building must, undeniably, be decided by architects, and those of instruction and training by teachers. The practical test of the value of the propositions and demands made by physicians is an affair for teachers. Unfortunately, however, it happens that, through excess of zeal, physicians, as well as teachers, overstep the bounds of their profession and touch upon matters which they do not fully understand. An impatient pressing forward on the one hand and a jealous warding off on the other have disturbed and deferred the solution of the question of medical inspection in schools. The introduction of medical inspection has been opposed on both pedagogical and financial grounds, and, on the part of municipal authorities, out of consideration for possible annoyances in administration. At first certain educators expressed the fear that medical specialists might go too far in their demands and attach too much importance to the sanitary factor, repressing mental development by limiting the subjects of instruction, exercising a disturbing influence upon the internal management with reference to method, programmes, and home lessons, and diminishing the prestige of teachers among pupils and in society. This prejudice has yielded to a better view, since teachers have been convinced that physicians have in no wise undermined their authority, that teaching and hygiene can go hand in hand in following out their ideal aims, and that harmonious physical and mental development is best promoted by their cooperation. As Schubert has justly observed, the strong opposition on the part of teachers arose from the fact that it was feared an additional authority might be established which would give rise to friction, mutual distrust, and a state of uncertainty. A dictatorial attitude, without regard to pedagogical demands and aims, might occasion a confusion, in consequence of which both health and education would suffer. In education the aims of instruction alone can not determine; the physical welfare of the children must also be kept in view and promoted. The view of prominent educators is often advanced that it is a duty of the school to promote the physical well-being of the children; but for this physicians are necessary. Private study in hygiene, enthusiasm and zeal on the part of teachers, can not take their place. Some questions relating to the preservation of health, it is true, are easily understood, but many require special medical information. PHYSICIANS ALONE COMPETENT. In matters of school hygiene the cooperation of teachers is indispensable, though they can not supply the place of physicians; without the help of the teacher, however, fruitful work on the physician's part is inconceivable. To gain this, the dissatisfaction of many educators, who gave expression to their "aversion to being told what to do by a physician," had to be overcome, and teachers convinced that physicians desire neither to disturb the course of instruction nor impair the authority of teachers, but only to cooperate in the cause of general education. A primary condition for profitable cooperation is therefore, unquestionably, the judicious choice of a physician who possesses a quiet, tactful manner, wide experience, and a knowledge of human nature. Such medical men |