66 Herod Agrippa.—The Jewish kingdom was again reconstructed from its several tetrarchies by Claudius, and bestowed upon Herod Agrippa, grandson of Herod the Great, A. D. 41. Educated at Rome, he was the friend of the Emperors Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius; and after many years, full of the most striking vicissitudes of fortune, he became one of the greatest princes of the East, and governed the Jews three years in such a manner as to become extremely popular. His death, which was sudden, may be ascribed to the immediate judgment of God for his impiety. On a day of festival, when he appeared in the theatre of Cæsarea, the brilliant light of the sun glancing on nis silver robes struck the people with admiration. Fawning parasites addressed him as a god :—“Be thou merciful unto us, for although we have hitherto received thee only as a man, yet henceforth we shall regard thee as superior to mortal nature." He neither rebuked nor rejected this impious flattery, when he was immediately smitten with violent pains in his bowels. Turning to his attendants, he cried, “Behold your god is now condemned to die!" Five days he lingered in the most excruciating tortures, when he expired, having attained only the fifty-fourth year of his age, and the seventh of his reign as tetrarch of Galilee. Under the frequent change of governors and prefects, the Jews experienced alternate changes of gentleness and severity. False Messiahs appeared on every side, and a ferocious sect arose, which, adopting the opinions of Judas the Gaulonite, put itself in open hostility to the Roman government. Under Claudius Felix, who trembled at the simple truths uttered by St. Paul, the country began to be filled with robbers and murderers. Gessius Florus, A. D. 64, the worst of the Roman governors, was tyrannical, cruel, and insatiably avaricious. He murdered 3000 people in Jerusalem, 20,000 at Cæsarea, 2000 at Ptolemais, and 2500 at Ascalon⚫ but when he carried his insolence so far as to attempt to enter the temple with his soldiers, the whole inhabitants rose in arms against him. The nation was unfortunately divided into two parties, one proposing submission, the other desirous to continue the revolt. The country now became a scene of bloodshed, and the flame of insurrection spread to Syria, Egypt, and the neighbouring states. Cestius Gallus, prefect of Syria, who endeavoured to recover the capital, was defeated with great loss. The Christians, remembering the prophecy of Christ, took advantage of the retreat of the Roman army, and withdrew to Pella, beyond the Jordan, where they lived in peace, free from the horrors of the war raging around the holy city. DESTRUCTION OF Jerusalem, a. d. 70.—Ananus, or Annas, the high priest, was raised to the civil command of Jerusalem, and the historian Josephus was at the head of the armies of Galilee and Gamala. Vespasian was sent with 60,000 men to crush the rebellion, a. D. 67. After subduing the revolted provinces, he was spreading his toils around the devoted city, when, as already noticed, he was elected emperor, a. D. 69; and departing for Rome, left his son Titus to continue the campaign. The Jews had neglected to profit by this season of delay. The ravages of war without were far less fatal than the murderous rage of the factions within the walls. "The holy city had become the nest of all uncleanness, a horrid den of robbers, and a hateful cave of murderers." Eleazar, with a band of Zealots (a hørde of robbers who had assumed the name without the principles of the sect), possessed the inner court of the Temple; while John of Gischala, who had obstinately resisted he Romans in Galilee, occupied the rest of the building, now converted into a fortress. When Titus advanced to the siege, Jerusalem was crowded with people from all quarters, who had come up to celebrate the passover; and they soon became a prey to the most horrible famine recorded in history, so that vermin, grass, and leather, were held a luxury, and sold at a high price. From the middle of April to the first of July, not fewer than 115,880 dead bodies were flung out at one gate of the city; the whole number thus disposed of is reckoned at 600,000; and after an unexampled siege of six months, the city was reduced, A. D. 70. "The destruction of Jerusalem exceeded all which God or man ever brought upon the world." Exclusive of those who perished in caves and woods, and in the vaults of Jerusalem, 1,364,000 are computed by Lipsius to have fallen in the war; 97,000 were taken prisoners; and 11,000 sullenly starved themselves to death. Titus, we are told, called God to witness that he was not the author of their calamities. In perusing the melancholy details of Josephus, it is impossible to resist the conviction, that in these awful transactions the hand of the Almighty was punishing a guilty people, and requiring from them the righteous blood of Christ, which they had invoked upon their heads, crying-" HIS BLOOD BE ON US, AND ON OUR CHILDREN !" Read: Milman's History of the Jews; Huie's History of the Jews. HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. THE MESSIAH.-During a season of profound peace, in the reign of Augustus, when there was a general expectation that some great personage was about to appear, the time arrived for the redemption of the human race, promised at the fall of man, predicted by all the prophets, typified by all the ceremonies of the ancient law, and earnestly desired by all just men. In thefulness of time" JESUS CHRIST was born at Bethlehem. He escaped from the murderous rage of Herod, and for nearly thirty years lived an obscure life at Nazareth. At length, entering on his public ministry, he began to teach, in the reign of Tiberius, throughout all Judæa, confirming his divine mission by the purity of his life, the sublimity of his doctrines, and his miraculous powers. The Jews, who had looked for an earthly conqueror, refused to listen to the lowly Galilean, and procured his condemnation and execution as a criminal, 3d April, A. D. 30. After the resurrection and ascension of our Saviour, the Christian religion spread rapidly under the ministry of the apostles and their converts. They preached throughout all the Roman empire the sublime truths revealed to them by their divine Master, and established churches in three quarters of the world. The name of Christian was first used at Antioch, a. D. 40. The four gospels contain the history of the Redeemer's life and doctrines, and were written in the order in which they stand, between A. D. 37 and 98. CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH. The first Christian societies or churches were formed, as far as circumstances would permit, on the model of the synagogue, were governed by deacons, and sometimes deaconesses, who were charged with the distribution of alms; elders (presbyters or priests) exercised a right of censure over private individuals, bu their functions originally were not connected with religious instructions; and bishops (episcopi, overseers), the associates in the labours and the successors of the apostles. The bishop administered the sacraments and maintained the discipline of the church, superintended the daily increasing religious ceremonies, directed the funds, and arbitrated in the disputes of the faithful.* Persecution forced the different communities to unite each round the nearest centre, generally some populous and neighbouring town; such was the origin of a diocese. The same necessity compelled the bishops of the country towns to unite with the capital of the province, and thus a metropolis was formed. This institution confirmed a custom which dates from the end of the second century, that of synods or councils, provincial meetings held in spring and autumn. FIRST PERSECUTION, A. D. 64.—The progress of the new doctrines brought down upon their professors the rage of the Jews and the cruel torments of Nero. The year A. D. 64 was an eventful epoch in the Christian Church. The dreadful conflagration which threatened with ruin the Eternal City was considered as the judgment of offended deities, to appease whom the followers of the Christian religion were exposed to the severest tortures. "Some of them (says the pagan Tacitus) were covered over with the skins of wild beasts, that they might be torn to pieces by dogs; some were crucified, while others, having been daubed over with combustible materials, were set up for lights in the night-time, and thus burnt to death." The apostles Peter and Paul suffered martyrdom in this persecution, which appears to have been principally confined to the capital, where the latter of these faithful men became the victim of imperial rage.† SECOND PERSECUTION.-For nearly 30 years after the death of Nero, the Christians were allowed to live undisturbed; and their numbers had multiplied considerably, when the gloomy tyrant Domitian began the second persecution, A. D. 95. It is probable that the emperor acted through fear, since there is a singular story related of an edict issued by him fc the extermination of the whole family of David. Some descendants of our Lord's brethren still survived, and were brought before the tribunal of the procurator of Judæa, but, after examination, they were dismissed as too humble to be dangerous to the authority of Rome. The apprehensions of Domitian were aroused by the appearance of danger from a nearer quarter. One of his cousins-german, the consul Flavius Clemens, being suddenly accused of atheism and Jewish manners, the common charge against Christians, was put to death, and his wife, Domitilla, the emperor's niece, was banished. Tertullian relates that St. John was miraculously delivered unhurt from a vessel of flaming oil, into which he had been cast by the orders of the tyrant. He was afterwards banished to the isle of Patmos, on the western coast of Asia Minor, where he committed to writing his sublime Book of Revelation. *The apostolic succession of the bishops appears to be undeniable, but the extent and nature of their authority are altogether uncertain. It should, moreover, be observed that the term "successors of the apostles" can be applied to them in a very limited significa. tion only. †Count Stolberg, a Romanist writer, brings Peter to Rome at the beginning of Nero's reign, but denies that the apostle founded the Christian church in that city. It is, however, more than questionable if St. Peter ever was at Rome. Lightfoot positively asserts that he lived and died in Chaldæa. Milman endeavours to reconcile testimony and tradition by the theory of two churches, a Petrine and a Pauline, a Judaising and a Hel lenising community. Ten great persecutions of the early Christian church are recorded by misto. rians; we shall treat of them as they occur, but it may be convenient to arrange their epochs together: 3d PERSECUTION, A. D. 106, under Trajan. 4th PERSECUTION, A. D. 166, under Marcus Aurelius. 10th PERSECUTION, A. D. 303, under Diocletian and Maximian. Read: Milman's Hist. of Christianity; Milner's Hist. of the Church of Christ In the years 55 and 54 B. C., Julius Cæsar invaded this island, but his two campaigns were indecisive, and the country maintained its independence until A. D. 43, when the Emperor Claudius in person, and afterwards the generals Plautius and Vespasian, compelled various tribes to acknowledge the majesty of Rome. The last of these commanders fought thirty battles before he could subdue the inhabitants, and Caractacus opposed Plautius during five years with varying success. This brave chief of the Silures being without allies, his army was at last defeated with great slaughter, and he himself taken prisoner and carried to Rome. Suetonius endeavoured to destroy the Druids who had taken refuge in the isle of Anglesey, and quelled a formidable insurrection headed by the celebrated Boadicea, A. D. 61, which cost the lives of 150,000 men. In the course of seven years, 78-85, the power of the empire was firmly established by Agricola: he subdued the natives as far north as the Forth, and also defeated Galgacus and his Caledonians at the foot of their native Grampians. Rutilius has said, with equal beauty and truth, that Rome embraced the whole world in her legislative triumphs, causing all to live under a common bond; that she blended discordant nations into one; and that, by offering to the conquered a full companionship in her privileges, she made the earth one united city. With these principles Agricola endeavoured to civilize the island, by inspiring the barbarians with a love of letters, and by the introduction of the Roman dress, language, and luxurious manners. Four legions were stationed in Britain, and as many great roads facilitated the communication between distant points. The most ancient inhabitants of the country appear to have been the Cymry, from whom the Welsh are descended; and these were followed by colonies of Celts from Gaul, being themselves, like the first settlers, of Cimmerian origin. But not by rude emigrants alone was the island visited, for the Phoenicians, and after them the Carthaginians, frequented its south-western shores in search of tin. Numerous tribes, of which forty-five have been designated, were spread over its surface; and the Belga, a people of Gothic origin, occupied the south-eastern coast. They all lived in such a state of primitive simplicity as might be witnessed at present in the woods of North America, or in New Zealand. Their food was milk and flesh, skins their clothing, and to strike terror into their enemies in battle the exposed limbs were stained blue. Their houses were constructed of timber and reeds; their towns were situated in the depths of forests, the access to which was protected by ditches and barriers of trees. Money was little used, and was commonly rings of iron or copper of a certain weight. Their army was chiefly composed of infantry; but, like the heroes of the Trojan war, their chiefs fought from chariots armed with scythes. Their religion was that of the fierce and sanguinary Druids; a system which is said to have originated in Britain, whence it was introduced into Gaul. Its principal doctrines were the immortality and transmigration of souls; its chief maxims-to worship the gods, to do no evil, and to behave heroically. To appease, by cruel rites, their offended deities, huge images of wickerwork were filled with human victims, who were burned alive, and from their quivering limbs the priests predicted future events. The mistletoe, wherever it was found upon the oak, itself a sacred tree, was cut with great ceremony, and used as a charm to cause fecundity or to counteract poison. The Druidical order was divided into three classes: 1. The Druids, who were their dignitaries; 2. The Bards, poets or musicians; and, 3. The Ouates, the lowest rank of sacrificers and diviners. Of their monuments we have no remains, unless we consider as such the remarkable ruins of Stonehenge and Abury. Read: Turner's Anglo-Saxons, book i. chap. iv. SECOND CENTURY. ROME.-96, Nerva.-98, Trajan.-117, Adrian.-138-180, The Antonines.— 180, Commodus.-193, Didius Julianus. THE CHURCH.-Third and Fourth Persecutions. LITERATURE, &c.-Lucian; Ptolemy; Justin Martyr; Apuleius; Suetonius; ROME. THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS.-NERVA, A. D. 96-98, began his short but happy reign by the diminution of taxes. He was of Cretan extraction, and elected by the senate at the age of sixty-five to support the *The Targum is a Chaldee paraphrase of the five books of Moses by Onkelos: its date is uncertain. The Mischnah is a compilation of traditional Jewish laws by Rabbi Judah; its commentary, the Gemarah, is divided into two parts, viz. 1st, The Talmud of Jerusalem, compiled in the third century; and 2d, The Talmud of Babylon, compiled in the |