rounded by men of low extraction, with whom he occupied himself in the study of architecture, music, and other arts. The nobles, indignant at the choice of his favourites, plotted against him; but the treason was discovered: John, earl of Mar, brother of the king, was assassinated; Alexander, duke of Albany, another brother, escaped from Edinburgh castle, and took refuge in England. In consequence of the intrigues of this fugitive with Edward IV., in which Albany assumed the title of King of Scotland, and bound himself, if the English monarch would furnish him with the means of establishing his claim, to do homage to him, the Duke of Gloucester marched northwards at the head of a numerous army, which compelled James to implore the aid of his barons. These readily assembled in arms, less with the intention of repelling foreign invasion than of obtaining satisfaction for their own injuries. They resolved on the death of the king's favourites, and executed their design in the camp near Lauder, with all the promptitude and vigour of military men. James, unable to rely on an army so turbulent, disbanded it, and taking refuge in Edinburgh castle, soon became reconciled with the Duke of Albany. But his majesty had not learnt wisdom from the late transactions; and a decree forbidding the wearing of arms within the royal palace, together with the formation of a permanent body-guard, drove the nobles to revolt, who placed at their head the Duke of Rothesay, the eldest of his children. This imminent danger drew the monarch from his retirement: He marched against the rebels, and, being defeated at Sauchieburn, a few miles from Stirling, was assassinated in a miller's cottage, 1488. The general indignation excited by this atrocious murder compelled the conspirators to use their victory. with moderation. JAMES IV. succeeded to the throne; and in his reign, the enmity which had frequently displayed itself between the sovereign and the nobility was almost forgotten. Far from dreading the power of the aristocracy, he considered it the best support of the throne; and by his confidence gained their aid in all his enterprises.

ITALIAN PENINSULA.

NAPLES. In the twelfth century, the kingdom of Naples passed in succession to the Normans, and to the German Hohenstaufens; and in the thirteenth, to the house of Anjou. This dynasty governed until 1382, when Joan I. adopted the younger brother of Charles V. of France, Louis I. of Anjou, who was, however, deprived of the crown by Charles, duke of Durazzo, the direct heir. Thus began those wars between the second house of Anjou and the family of Durazzo, which led to the invasion of Italy and the long struggle between France and the Empire. Louis I., in 1383, and next Louis II., in 1390, invaded the kingdom, but without success. A second Joan, sister of Ladislaus who succeed ed Charles of Durazzo, revived this war, when its embers were nearly extinct, by adopting in turn Alphonso V., king of Aragon and Sicily, and Louis III. of Anjou. When Joan and Louis died in 1435, René of Anjou, duke of Lorraine and count of Provence, opposed Alphonso V., and was for a brief period master of Naples; but, in 1442, he was driven out by the latter sovereign, who received the investiture of his new kingdom from the pope. Alphonso died in 1458, leaving to his natural son Ferdinand the kingdom of Naples, and to his brother John

II. (the usurper of Navarre) Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia, with the Balearic Isles, Sardinia, and Sicily.

Alphonso V., surnamed the Magnanimous, was not only a skilful and fortunate warrior, but the protector of letters. In his liberality originated the chief defects of his government; for perpetually embarrassed in consequence of his profuse generosity, he was obliged either to oppress his subjects with taxes, or sell his patronage contrary to the good administration of his kingdom. Lavishly conferring new titles, he extended the prerogatives of the nobles, so as to aggravate the evils of vassalage, and weaken the authority of the crown; but in spite of these faults, he deserves to be considered one of the greatest and most worthy monarchs that adorned the fifteenth century.

At the summons of the Neapolitan barons, John of Anjou, son of René, in 1459, opposed himself to Ferdinand, who, being defeated in the battle of Sarno, 1460, was only saved from destruction by Francis Sforza and Scanderbeg, the latter of whom Alphonso had often aided against the Turks, and who now repaid to the son the assistance he had received from the father. The victory of Troja in Apulia, however, seated Ferdinand securely on the throne. The conqueror now began to oppress the supporters of his rival; and the hatred excited by his cruelties was increased during his long reign by numerous acts of treachery and violence. In 1485, the nobles revolted against him; but he disarmed them by an insidious peace, and arresting the most dangerous, caused them to be secretly put to death. Those who escaped his vengeance by flight spread throughout Italy the odium of his name.

FLORENCE.-Towards the end of the fourteenth century, the triumph of the Albizzi faction deprived the Medici of all influence. John of that name restored his family in 1420, having acquired immense riches, and become chief magistrate. In 1426, when the nobles had formed the design of usurping all the power of the state, he alone refused to second their project, and thereby raised his popularity to the greatest height. Cosmo I. inherited the talents of his father, but neglecting his sage counsels, was banished in 1433. Being recalled the following year, the Albizzi were all proscribed, and he preserved the supreme authority until his death in 1464. His fellow-citizens conferred on him the title of "Father of his Country," '—a distinction worthy of his zeal to maintain peace at home as well as abroad, and of the noble uses to which he applied his wealth, in building palaces, founding monasteries and hospitals, forming libraries, and extending to letters and the arts that protection which became hereditary in his family. This distinguished merchant was at the head of one hundred and twenty-eight commercial houses in Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Pietro de Medici had neither the experience nor the talent required to accomplish the objects contemplated by his predecessor; but when Soderini, the gonfalonier of justice, had sought the alliance of the Duke of Modena to dethrone Pietro, the latter gave such proofs of firmness as disconcerted his enemies, and enabled him to proscribe the most illustrious families. Lorenzo and Julian, though young, were recognised as their father's successors; and, during seven years, Florence enjoyed peace under their government. Among the chief persons of the city the Pazzi held the first rank, and these Cosmo had desired to attach to his party by bonds of marriage. Lorenzo, surnamed "the Magnificent," pursuing a different line of conduct, spared no exertions to ruin their

*

fortunes; and hence a conspiracy to murder the Medici and change the government was eagerly entered into by these persecuted men. The brothers were attacked in the cathedral church: Julian was killed, but Lorenzo escaped to take a bloody revenge on the assassins, 1478. The war which sprung out of this conspiracy lasted nearly three years.

Lorenzo died in 1492, beloved by his subjects, respected abroad, and deeply lamented on account of the skill with which he had held the balance among the other powers of Italy. His taste for the arts and literature procured him the title of "Father of the Muses;" but his luxury, together with the bad management of his commercial transactions, entirely absorbed the immense fortune of the Medici. During many years, the public revenues contributed to cover their losses; and, at last, to prevent their bankruptcy, the state itself became insolvent, 1490. The interest of the debt, then fixed at three per cent., was reduced to one and a half; a number of charitable foundations were suppressed; and the coin in circulation was received in payment of taxes at one-fifth below its nominal value, and reissued at its full amount.

THE ROMAN STATE.-The abdication of the antipope, Clement VIII., in 1429, terminated the great schism of fifty-one years. Martin V. alone retained the tiara, by whom the council of Basle was convoked in 1431. His successor, Eugenius IV., alarmed at the attacks made by this body upon his prerogative, convened in succession the synods of Ferrara and Florence, a proceeding which gave rise to another separation, the fathers of Basle deposing him, and electing Amadeus of Savoy as Felix V. In 1438, the French adopted several decrees of the council of Basle, by the famous pragmatic sanction which Charles VII. drew up at Bourges; and their example was imitated by the Germans, who accepted the same decrees at the diet of Mentz, 1439, since which time the popes had used every exertion to obtain their revocation. Nicholas V., who succeeded Eugenius in 1447, substituted the Germanic concordat for that of Mentz; but the joy this event caused was clouded by the conspiracy of Stephano Porcari, and by the fall of Constantinople. Several attempts were made by Calixtus III., Pius II., and Paul II., to excite the Christians to another Crusade, but they all completely failed. The Cardinal Francis de la Rovera, exalted to the pontificate under the title of Sixtus IV., was more occupied in the aggrandizement of his family than in promoting the interests of the church. Innocent VIII. succeeded in 1484,-a prelate of easy life and manners, entirely governed by favourites, and who made every thing a matter of money. After him the infamous Borgia, Alexander VI., for eleven years disgraced St. Peter's chair. His simoniacal election, 1492, and the knowledge of his character, spread general consternation.

VENICE.—The taking of Constantinople by the Turks threatened the destruction of the Venetian colonies in the East. At first the republic was allowed to have an ambassador in that capital; but în 1463, her leaders began a war, which, after sixteen years, was terminated by an unfavourable treaty. It was during these hostilities that Venice obtained

*Conspiracy at this period seemed to be the constitutional mode of reforming a bad government. In three years, historians reckon one at Ferrara, two at Genoa, one a Milan and one at Florence.

possession of Cyprus. This isle had been given by Richard Cœur de Lion to Guy of Lusignan, whose descendants occupied the throne 266 years. The last of these, John III., died in 1458, leaving an only daughter, Charlotte, who succeeded, and whose husband, Louis of Savoy, brother of Duke Amadeus IX., shared the honours of the crown. James, a natural son of John III., supported by the Sultan of Egypt, Malek-Ella, to whom the kings of Cyprus were tributary, dethroned them both in 1460. The usurper, threatened by the knights of St. John and the Genoese, sought the aid of Venice by marrying Catherine Cornaro, niece of Andrew Cornaro, a patrician, whose family had extensive estates in the island, 1471. The senate, to honour this union, adopted Catherine, declaring her “daughter of St. Mark," that is, of the republic. James died two years after, and the queen, owing to her foreign extraction, being unpopular among the Cypriots, the Venetians, in her name, reduced the island under their power in 1474, leaving to her little beyond the pomp of royalty. Their hold on this conquest was confirmed by Catherine's abdication in 1489 and the investiture given them by the Sultan of Egypt. While the republicans were thus extending their sway over Cyprus, aggrandizement in Italy was not neglected by them. They acquired by wars and treaties Gallipoli and Policastro, Polesina and the territory of Rovigo; for at this period their armies were scarcely less powerful on land than their fleets at sea. The population was numerous, the finances well administered; and this was the first state that, by government loans, had attached the rich to the commonwealth by the great bond of the public funds. Her manufactures in gold, silver, and silk, were much esteemed; but the time of her fall drew near, when the commerce of Asia, turned from its ancient course, went to enrich the nations of the West.

MILAN AND GENOA. A labourer of Cotignola, named Attendolo, becoming a soldier at the beginning of the fifteenth century, passed rapidly through all the degrees of military rank, and became the most famous captain of the age. With 7000 volunteers who followed his banner, he delivered Joan II. of Naples from the hands of Alphonso of Aragon, for which he was made constable of the kingdom and gonfalonier of the Roman church. A premature death by drowning terminated his honourable career. He had changed his name to Sforza, which he transmitted to his natural son Francis, inheritor of his talents and courage, who had married Bianca, natural daughter of Philip-Maria, last of the Visconti dukes of Milan. On his father-in-law's death, 1447, he claimed the inheritance in opposition to the Duke of Savoy, the King of Naples, the republic of Venice, and Charles of Orleans. The Milanese abolished the ducal power, and established a republic, nominating their own magistrates, and appointing Sforza conmander of their troops. In this post he succeeded in restoring the title of duke, and reigned until the year 1466. The greatest princes sought his alliance; his daughter Hippolyta married Alphonso of Naples, and Louis XI. ceded to him the city of Genoa. His son and successor Galeazzo, by his pride and despotism, excited an insurrection in which he perished, 1476. Under his infant heir John Galeazzo, two uncles disturbed the public tranquillity; they were, however, eventually banished. About this time the Genoese revolted and recovered their liberty; but Prospero Adorno, the mover of the revolution, having abused his victory by putting some of his oppo

nents to death, fled from the city, and Battista Fregosa was proclaimed doge. In 1479, one of the uncles of the Duke Galeazzo, known as Ludovico the Moor, made himself master of Tortona. Having been called to Milan to act as counterpoise to the favourite minister Simoneta, he soon put that officer to death, declaring that his nephew, a child of twelve years, had attained his majority; from which time Ludovico in reality governed in the name of his ward. In 1488, Genoa again became a Milanese dependency, although Sforza hat the prudence to hold it as a fief of the French crown, the investiture of which he received two years after.

The other states of Italy do not require to be mentioned in detail: it will be sufficient merely to note their existence. The Counts of Savoy were attached to France. Duke Philip II. was of great use to Charles VIII. in his Italian expedition, for which he was created high-chamberlain and grand-master of the palace. The marquisates of Montferrat and Saluzzo were not yet united to Savoy; while Parma and Piacenza formed a portion of the Milanese territory. The house of Este reigned in Ferrara, Modena, and Reggio; the Gonzagas at Mantua; the Picos at Mirandola; the Malatestas at Rimini; the Malaspinas at Massa and Carrara; the Grimaldis at Monaco; and the Montfeltros at Urbino: all of which states, with the small republics of Lucca and Sienna, were dragged into the common vortex of political commotion.

Never had Italy been happier or more flourishing than at the epoch of the French invasion in 1494. Ruled by native-born princes, independent of all foreign influence, exempt from internal troubles, she had carried the sciences, letters, and the arts to the highest degree of perfection. Enriched by agriculture and commerce, she possessed the most brilliant courts, the most magnificent cities; and her pleasures, the natural result of long prosperity, had attained a degree of delicacy and refinemen unknown to the rest of Europe. But this deceitful exterior concealed those vices which usually indicate the decline of nations,effeminacy, perfidy, cowardice, and corruption. She carried in her bosom the seeds of ruin, which the concord maintained by the ascendency of two wise rulers, Pope Innocent VIII. and Lorenzo de Medici, alone prevented for a time from bursting forth. But these two monarchs expiring about the same period, in 1492, the equilibrium was destroyed, and Italy doomed to experience the horrors of internal discord and foreign invasion.

SPANISH PENINSULA.

NAVARRE. In 1419, JOHN II., second son of Ferdinand the Just, king of Aragon, had married Blanche, daughter and heiress of Charles III., king of Navarre, of the house of Evreux. When the latter monarch died, in 1435, the crown passed to the family of John, who had one son, Don Carlos, prince of Viana, and two daughters, Blanche married to Henry IV. of Castile, and Leonora the wife of Gaston IV., count of Foix. On the death of his mother in 1441, Carlos ought to have inherited the crown of Navarre, but as this would have compelled his father to descend from his high station, he not less wisely than affectionately left the supreme power in his hands. The king having taken a second wife, Joanna Henriquez, daughter of the Admiral of Castile, had a son, who is known in history as Ferdinand the Catholic. At the