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were commanded by the Constable Bourbon, who had been arbitrarily deprived of his estates at home, and had joined the cause of the enemy. The confederates took the field in Italy; but not being sufficiently reinforced by Francis, the Constable overran the Milanese, and his troops beginning to mutiny for want of pay, he led them to Rome, then one of the richest cities in Europe. In the assault on the city, he himself was slain; but Rome was taken, and experienced from the troops of the Catholic monarch calamities surpassing those inflicted by the barbarians of former times, 1527. On receiving the news of the captivity of the pope, Charles ordered prayers to be offered up in the churches for his deliverance, saying that his quarrel was with the temporal sovereign of Rome, but not the spiritual head of the church. The treaty of Cambray, 1529, restored peace between the rival monarchs; Francis abandoning his claims upon Italy and Flanders. In the same year, Charles and Pope Clement were also reconciled; and, in March 1530, the Spanish king was crowned by the pope at Bologna as Emperor and King of Lombardy."

In the mean time, the doctrines of the Reformation had made rapid progress in the empire. Martin Luther, a man of elevated mind and inflexible resolution, had boldly declaimed against the corruptions of the papacy, 1517; and the opinions he promulgated were readily embraced by the thoughtful and speculative people of Germany. The policy of the northern princes strongly encouraged this natural direction of the minds of their subjects, as the best guarantee against the almost irresistible power of Charles. From the year 1525, John the Constant, who had succeeded his brother Frederick the Wise in the electorate of Saxony; Philip, landgrave of Hesse; George, marquis of Brandenburg; Ernest, duke of Luneburg; and Wolfgang, prince of Anhalt, with most of the free cities of the empire, made a public profession of Lutheranism. Albert, margrave of Brandenburg. grandmaster of the Teutonic knights, desirous of sharing in the political advantages of the Reformation, renounced his vow of chastity, secularized the duchy of Prussia, which he placed under the protection of Poland, and thus laid the foundations of a monarchy which, two centuries later, became one of the most powerful in Christendom. Thoroughly alarmed at the progress of the new opinions, Charles, soon after his coronation, set out for Germany, where he immediately assembled the diet at Augsburg, June 1530. The Reformers, who had now received the name of Protestants, here solemnly presented to the emperor the first public confession of their faith, drawn up by Luther, and subscribed by the various princes who had embraced the reformed doctrines. Charles, whose disposition was not naturally intolerant, found himself compelled to adopt a temporizing policy towards this portion of his subjects. The Turks were now menacing Hungary; and satisfied that he could not refuse them the free exercise of their religion without a war of extermination, he referred the whole matter to a general council, which he urged the pope to convoke, but which did not meet until 1545.

The emperor now began to despair of universal monarchy, and finding himself unable alone to support the burden of affairs, he associated his brother Ferdinand with him in the government, and conferred on him the title of king of the Romans, 1531. This prince, who administered the hereditary estates of Austria, had acquired by marriage the kingdom

of Bohemia, and the sovereignty of Hungary had fallen to him on the death of Louis II. Thus already wielding three sceptres, and uniting under his authority all the south of Germany, he was one of the most powerful princes in Europe when he was nominated to the imperial succession. Charles having repelled a formidable inroad of the Turks in Hungary, 1532, returned to Spain, whence he sailed with a large army for Tunis, where Barbarossa, the dread of the Christians in the Mediterranean, had fortified himself, 1535. During his absence, the Anabaptists, a fanatical sect which had arisen in Germany amid the agitation of Reformed doctrines, seized on the city of Munster, and defended it courageously against the troops of the bishop; they were, however, overcome, and their leaders executed with great cruelty. On the return of the emperor from Africa, where he had been completely successful, he was again compelled to take up arms against Francis, who once more revived his Italian claims, 1536. Having expelled the French from Italy, Charles invaded their territory, with the determination of reducing it to a province of his empire; but after fruitlessly investing Arles and Marseilles, and laying waste Provence, he was compelled to recross the Alps with the loss of half his army. Mohammed, the sultan's lieutenant, having at the same time invaded Hungary, while Barbarossa was ravaging the coasts of Southern Italy, he gladly accepted the mediation of Paul III., and a truce of ten years was concluded with Francis, 1538.

The conquest of Algiers had long been a favourite object with Charles. Having suppressed a revolt in Ghent, his native place, he, in 1541, collected a large armament, with which he sailed for Africa, contrary to the advice of his admiral, Andrew Doria. Having landed and commenced operations against the city, a furious storm scattered his fleet and destroyed his soldiers, and he was forced to reimbark with the loss of the greater part of his force. Meanwhile, the murder at Milan of two French emissaries on their way to Constantinople, and the refusal of Charles to call the perpetrators to account, put an end to the truce between him and Francis, 1542. The latter was allied with the kings of Denmark and Sweden, and had renewed a treaty he formerly made with the sultan. During two years, war raged in France, Spain, Italy, and the Low Countries; but the only important engagement took place at Cerrisoles, in which 10,000 imperialists were slain, and their opponents gained a signal victory, 1544. This was followed by a peace signed at Crespy, in which each party agreed to restore its conquests, unite against the Turks, and suppress reform in their respective dominions.

The prime motive with Charles in the peace now mentioned was his desire to humble the Protestant princes. The diet of Worms, in 1545, passed various resolutions against them, in consequence of which they rose in arms under Frederick of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse. The emperor concluded a dishonourable peace with Soliman, formed an alliance with the Pope, who sent him 13,000 men under his illegitimate son, Alexander Farnese, and having collected an army, made a victorious march towards Upper Germany, levying contributions in the disaffected districts. In a decisive battle at Mulhausen, 1547, the confederates were completely defeated, and the two princes taken prisoners. The electorate of Saxony was conferred on Maurice, a kinsman of Frederick, who had treacherously aided the emperor against the confederacy

of which he had at one time been a member. All opposition seemed now at an end; his great rival Francis had recently expired; and Charles, thinking himself secure in his designs on the liberties of Germany, and desirous of ending dictatorially the disputes on religion, presented a formula to the diet of Augsburg, 1548, drawn up by his own order, the articles of which were to serve as a rule of faith until the final decision of a general council. To this most of the Protestant states were compelled to submit. But such an order of things was not destined to continue, for the Lutherans, though humbled, were not subdued; the princes were fully alive to the ambitious designs of Charles; and even Maurice of Saxony saw the necessity of opposing them. That prince, having been appointed general of an imperial army, retained the troops in his pay under various pretences; formed a treaty with Henry II. of France; and, secure of the adhesion of the Danish king and most of the northern potentates, at length threw off the mask. At the head of a force of 20,000 foot and 2000 horse, he took the field, with the avowed purpose of defending the Protestant religion and maintaining the liberties of Germany; and marched towards the south, everywhere restoring the Lutheran clergy and magistrates. At the same time the French invaded Lorraine, their monarch styling himself "Protector of the liberties of Germany and its captive princes." The emperor in vain sought to negotiate: Maurice advanced with all speed to Innsbruck, where he was then residing, and was so near surprising him, that he escaped with difficulty during the night. Augsburg had been taken, the Protestants laid siege to Frankfort on the Maine, and the haughty spirit of Charles was at length forced to submit. The treaty of Passau terminated the internal disputes of the empire, and placed the reformed religion on a secure basis, 1552.

This was unquestionably the most disastrous period in the reign of that great ruler. The war continued with the Turks in Hungary on the one side, and the French on the other; and on both the imperialists were almost uniformly unsuccessful. Italy was in commotion from north to south; Sienna openly revolted; and the coast of Naples was ravaged by the Turkish fleet, 1555. Wearied with the cares of government, and hopeless of realizing his dreams of universal dominion, Charles at length determined on resigning all his dignities. For this purpose he summoned his son Philip to Brussels, where the latter was solemnly invested with the government of the Low Countries, and a few weeks after with that of Spain and the Indies. In the following year, 1556, he gave up the imperial crown to his brother Ferdinand; and, after astonishing the world by this abdication, retired to the convent of St. Just, in Estre madura, where, at the end of two years, he expired in the 69th year of his age.

Consult, for particulars, Robertson's History of Charles V.

The first exertions of FERDINAND I., on being invested with the snpreme authority, were directed towards the establishment of civil and religious concord. He opposed the pretensions of the pope, who claimed the right of conferring the imperial title, and vindicated the independence of the empire from the encroachments of the holy see, 1557. Having re-assembled the counci' of Trent, which had been broken up by the disturbances of the last reign, an attempt at reconciliation between the

Catholic and Protestant parties was made by the emperor; but this proving ineffectual, this last of general councils was dissolved, 1563. MAXIMILIAN II. pursued with greater success the same course as his father, 1564. The reformers had now begun to retaliate the Catholic persecu ions, and even to disagree among themselves; but by his ability and moderation, he was enabled to hold the balance between the contending parties, and preserve the tranquillity of the empire. A Turkish invasion of Hungary was repelled, and a truce concluded with the sultan; while a convention with John Sigismund secured to him the crown of Hungary. RUDOLPH II. succeeded to the imperial crown in 1576, but fol

lowed a very different course. Abandoned to the direction of favourites,

and naturally intolerant, he suppressed the Protestant worship in Austria, and attempted to deprive the Hungarians and Bohemians of all their immunities. The country was everywhere embroiled in insurrections; the Lutherans were led to form a confederation, and to ally themselves with Holland and Henry IV. of France; while the Catholics, on the other hand, united for mutual defence. The empire was saved from open war by the assassination of Henry IV., 1610, just as he was about to pour his troops into Germany; and Rudolph himself died in 1612. In the midst of these troubles, however, science flourished; and the celebrated Rudolphine Tables, calculated by Kepler and Tycho Brahé, have rendered this reign an era in the annals of astronomy.

HUNGARY AND BOHEMIA.

Hungary first attained the rank of a kingdom in the eleventh century, the reigning prince, whose father, Duke Geysa, had previously embraced Christianity, assuming the title of STEPHEN L., 1000. Under succeeding monarchs, the country rose rapidly in importance; its limits were extended; and it long formed the chief barrier of Christendom against the Turks. The sovereignty was elective in 1437, it had fallen to ALBERT, archduke of Austria, who perished in a campaign against the Turks, and was succeeded by his posthumous son, LADISLAUS, 1440. Under this monarch and his successor, the kingdom was saved from destruction by the valiant regent, John Huniades, whose son, MATTHIAS I., ascended the throne in 1458. The neighbouring country of Bohemia became known as a kingdom about the end of the twelfth century, though still remaining feudatory to the German emperors, from whom its kings received their investiture; they, in turn, enjoying one of the seven electoral votes. The crown, like that of Hungary, was elective, passing, however, in ordinary cases, to the nearest heir. The power of the monarch was limited by the coronation oath, by a permanent senate, and by frequent convocations of the national diet, composed of the armed nobility. An important era in the history of Bohemia dates from the appearance of the celebrated John Huss, and his pupil, Jerome of Prague, the former of whom had translated the works of Wickliffe, and openly taught his doctrines to his countrymen, 1400. Both fell victims to the persecuting spirit of the age; but their preaching and example had made a deep impression, and led the way to an important change in the national faith, preceded, however, by great internal disorders.

On the death of Matthias I. of Hungary, in 1490, LADISLAUS, king of Bohemia, was invested with the crown, thereby uniting the two countries. This able prince was succeeded by his son, Louis II., a child ten years of age, 1516, during whose long minority_the country was torn by factions, and the national revenue wasted. In 1526, the Sultan invaded Hungary with an army of 300,000 men; and, in the fatal battle of Mohacz, Louis perished with the flower of his nobility,

great part of his territory becoming a prey to the conqueror. FERDINAND I. of Austria, having married the sister of Louis, succeeded to the throne of Bohemia; but the Hungarians, refusing to acknowledge his claim, gave the crown to John Zapoli, palatine of Transylvania, and at his death to his son, John Sigismund. This led to a long and bloody war, which, as the Turks took part in it, lasted during the whole life of Ferdinand, the result, in a great measure, of the unpopularity of the house of Austria, whose religious intolerance and despotic habits were offensive to the Hungarian nobles. MAXIMILIAN II., 1563, suc ceeded his father in the dignities of Emperor and King of Hungary and Bohemia; not, however, without opposition from John Sigismund, who was aided by Soliman II. RUDOLPH, who ascended the throne ir 1572, in order to get rid of the enormous expense of maintaining the strongholds of Croatia, gave them, as a fief of the empire, to Charles, duke of Styria, who partitioned the whole into a number of smaller fiefs, which he bestowed on foreigners of all nations, of whom he formed a military colony. This establishment, which gradually extended along the frontiers of Sclavonia and Croatia, effectually repelled the Turkish inroads, and supplied those redoubtable troops, who, under the names of Croats and Pandoors, became the strength of the Austrian armies. The bigoted spirit of this prince alienated the affections of his subjects, particularly of the Protestants, who rose in rebellion, and gave the thrones of both countries, during his lifetime, to his brother Matthias.

POLAND AND RUSSIA.

POLAND.-The Poles, who belonged to the Sclavonian branch of the European family, were at first divided into several petty states, constantly at war with each other; but the early history of the country is involved in much obscurity. In 965, the people were converted to Christianity, and united under the govern ment of Duke MIECZESLAUS, who became, however, a vassal of the empire; and his successor, BOLESLAUS, received the royal crown from the hands of the Emperor Otho III., 1000. During three hundred years the country presents the usual disorders incident to a rude and warlike people. LADISLAUS II., 1306, an able prince, exerted himself to compose the disturbances of the kingdom, and firmly established his authority. His son, CASIMIR the Great, followed in the steps of his father: he freed the nation from its dependence on the empire, invited the settlement of foreigners, built towns and fortresses, encouraged industry and commerce, and promulgated an excellent system of laws. At his death, 1370, the crown became elective with certain limitations, and was conferred on his nephew Louis, king of Hungary. This monarch secured the succession to his daughter, who ascended the throne in 1382, and married JAGELLON, duke of Lithuania, that prince with his people agreeing to embrace the Christian faith. This important augmentation of national strength was followed by long and violent contests with the Teutonic Knights, who possessed Prussia and the neighbouring provinces; these were not terminated till 1466, when, after immense bloodshed, the knights submitted to do homage.* The union with Lithuania did not prevent violent contentions and animosities between the two countries; they were afterwards repeatedly separated and again united, and their thorough incorporation was not effected till 1569.

The kings of Poland were engaged in almost incessant wars with the Ottomans, as well as with the Tartars and Muscovites. In 1501,

* This order of military monks was founded in Asia during the Crusades, whence they removed to Germany on the relinquishment of all hopes of recovering Palestine. Here they subdued the pagan inhabitants of Prussia, and shortly after acquired Livonia and Esthonia, 1273.

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