number of trees. The mouth of the harbour is about 1000 geometrical paces in width; but owing to shallow water men of war are obliged to run in and out through a canal. The harbour, otherwise, is very good, and capable of containing nearly a thousand vessels. The depth of water, where ships can anchor near the mole, is generally eight fathom. They endeavour always, by cleansing, to keep the same degree of depth, which is the more necessary as the sewers from the city run into the harbour, and choak it so much, that it would soon become useless.

Whoever enters the Havannah for the first time, must be struck with the singular appearance of the interior. The men in the streets are either negroes or mulattoes. The whites seldom go on foot, but mostly ride in close carriages. Still more uncommon is it to see women of any rank on foot, except when going to mass; but then curiosity is very little gratified, for they are enveloped in their mantillas. The university is entirely in the hands of the Dominicans. There are six professors of theology, and six of law; four chairs are appointed for medicine, and three for philosophy. The philosophy taught there continues to be the Aristotelian. In the convent of Belin, children of all colours are instructed gratis, in reading, writing, and accounts. A patriotic society has been established, where premiums are distributed for arts and agriculture. This institution is furnished with a library; and a periodical paper appears every Sunday and Thursday, under the direction of its members.

A great want at the Havannah is that of good water. What is brought from the Almendariz, by means of a canal, is muddy and ill tasted. To obviate this evil, the rain water is collected in cisterns. The city has eight gates, of which only two are on the land-side. The finest building is the palace of the captain-general. The arsenal is a mile in circumference, and well supplied with stores; men of war and other vessels are but there. The building and arrangement of the tobacco manufactory is said to have cost 200,000 piastres. The city, without reckoning the suburbs, is two miles in circumference. It is protected by strong ramparts and ditches, as well toward the land as the sea. It contains a numerous nobility, among whom are reckoned twenty-two branches of the highest rank, styled Titulos de Castilla, In the suburbs all the streets are unpaved and irregular, consequently after violent rains they are impassable. However, these parts are very populous, being generally preferred to the city, particularly in the hot season. Persons live there more at liberty, the air is purer, and the houses more spacious.

There is no regular theatre at the Havannah; nor can the conjurors, slight-of-hand

men, rope-dancers, and jumpers, be consi dered as supplying its place. The bull-fights are on a better footing; for the Spaniards cannot resign that darling passion. Still, however, they are far inferior to those in Spain. By the length of the voyage the animals lose their native ferocity, which suits the fighters here very well, as they want the necessary art and cleverness On the other hand, they supply the loss by cock-fights, which are very common. There are persons in the Havannah who keep their own initiatory cock-pits. The method of fighting is of two kinds. The cocks fight either solely with their bills, consequently the battle is generally undecided; or they cut off the left spur of each animal, and fasten on a sharp blade an inch in length. Hence the combat is soon decided by the flight, or death of one of the combatants.

The flotilla of Guarda Costas consists of men of war, to protect_the_treasure from Vera Cruz to the Havannah. They also bring provisions from Puerto Rico, la Guayra, Cumana, and Louisiana. The garrison is composed of two veteran regiments, of two battalions each, one called the Havannak, the other the Cuba; two companies of light infantry, a squadron of dragoons, a native regiment of infantry of two batallions, a cavalry regiment of four squadrons, with an artillery corps, and different companies of negroes and mulatoes, who serve as artilleryThe total number of troops on the island may be reckoned at 10,000: a force much too small to man the number of forts, in case of an attack on the island.

men.

The whole land and sea force, with the government of the island, are under the command of a captain-general. Hence the ap pointment is of very great importance, and always given to a meritorious and respectable general. The two governments, of the Havannah and Cuba, are subdivided into different small jurisdictions. The alcaides and governors try all civil disputes, as well as criminal cases. Where the contending partics are not military, appeals are made to the high court of the district, which is now at Puerto del Principe. The power of the captain-general extends likewise over Louisiana and Mobile. The second in command is the governor of the Havannah; who in case of absence or death of the captain-general, acts provisionally in his stead.

Most journies to distant places are made by water, wherever it is possible. But should any one wish to visit the interior, though he would not be exposed to robbers and wild beasts, yet he must entirely forego all those conveniences, which travellers meet with in other countries. As there is little intercourse with the interior, the roads are bad; there is no passage over the streams į and nothing res

sembling an inn. In some huts are to be found cheese, fruits, cassava bread, meat in abundance, and rum, but no place for a bed, for the inhabitants scarcely have room for themselves. On the contrary, the farmers, who live on the roads are so very hospitable, that their tables are always covered with two or three dishes for travellers; they constrain them to enter and partake of their fare gratuitously. The people in general, at a distance from the capital, are well disposed, domestic, and lively.

The city of Baracoa is the most ancient on the island. It stands on the N. E. coast, at the distance of 324 leagues from the Havannah. The population is not more than 2,700 souls.

Santiago de Cuba, being a bishop's see, and having been built by Velasquez, is always considered as the capital. Its distance from the Havannah is reported to be 269 leagues. The streets and houses' are distributed without order or taste. It is subject to slight earthquakes. The harbour is spacious, and secure. Its population and trade are at present on the decline, still the number of inhabitants may be reckoned at 20,000. The women are said to be the handsomest in the island. It contains different convents, and is under the jurisdiction of a governor and a civil magistrate.

Puerto del Principe is the most populous city after the Havannah, containing 30,000 souls; and increases daily by being the seat of the highest court of judicature. It is distant from the Havannah 165 leagues.

Twenty-two leagues from thence stands San Carlos de Mantanzas, with a strong fort, and naving a good harbour. The population 7000 souls.

Holguin reckons 600. Guiza, belonging to a marquis of the same name, contains nearly the same number. In the four cities of Santo Espirito, Trinidad, Santa Clara, and San Juan de los Remedios, they reckon 30,000. Bayamo, in the jurisdiction of Santiago de Cuba, contains 12,000. Santiago de las Vegas 5000; and Bejucal, a small city belonging to the Marquis San Felipe, above 2000.

Whoever travels through the country, beholds with extreme regret, the imense, uncultivated, yet highly fruitful tracts of land. He either discovers endless forests which the hand of man has not yet touched, or extensive plains covered with different kinds of cattle, kept by the neighbouring inhabitants. However, though Cuba cannot be reckoned among the most flourishing countries, and is far inferior to what it might be, yet agriculture, with commerce and the arts, are evidently progressive; and increasing opulence has not only introduced luxury, but a refinement in the objects of it,

ACCOUNT OF THE SALT LAKES AND MINES IN RUSSIA.

Salt is become so general and indispen sable a necessary of life among most na tions, that it constitutes, at present, one of the most important objects of political econo my. Russia possesses such a quantity of rich salt-mines, that the inhabitants can procure this article at a low price unheard of in other countries. Twelve millions of ponds are annually consumed.

The most productive mines are on the Tlek, on the Volga, and on the Vilni; but hitherto only those on the Tlek are worked. They are 60 versts from Orenburg. From 1705 to 1787, (except the year 1775, when they were not worked on account of the disturbances) 9,770,794 pouds were collected.

The largest and most lucrative salt-lakes are; the Jelton in the government of Saratov; those near Astrachan, particularly the Inderski lake; and those in the govern ment of Kolnevan. The Jelton produced in six years (from 1782 to 1788) 55,049,969 pouds, above 54 millions annually. The As trachanic lakes furnished in ten years (from 1765 to 1775) 6,760,097 pouds. The Inderski lake being given up to the Uralian Kosacks for their free use, the quantity cannot be accurately stated. From the Koine. vanic lakes, from 1777 to 1786, 4,830,312 pouds were collected. Among the rest, the Tauric, Caucasian, and Irkutskian are parti cularly productive. The former yield annually about three millions of pouds.

The richest salt-springs are; on the Kama near Solikamsk; on the Lovat near StarajaRusa; on the Donez near Bachmut and Tor; on the Volga near Tota and Balachna; in the Taurid, and in Taman; on the Dvina near Ustjug, on the Angara near Irkutsk ? and in other places. The most considerable salt-pans are in the neighbourhood of Solikamsk in the government of Perm. From 1765 to 1774, 25,897,815 pouds were pre-. pared; and in the years 1784 and 1785, 11,361,477 pouds: thus they amount to above 54 millions annually, which, reckoning the poud at 35 copecks the market price, make a total of nearly two millions of roubles.

The Permian salt works belong partly to the crown, but mostly to private persons. In 1784 and 1785, the produce of those of the crown amounted to 2,746,320 pouds, and the private ones to 8,615,157 pouds. The ex.

pence of a salt-pan, which contains between 40 and 50,000 pouds, costs 2915 roubles 594 copecks, including all necessaries, wines, &c.; so that the poud of salt costs the crown about six copecks. This salt is conveyed to twelve different governments, laden on large flat boats, which, without being fastened to

gether by one single iron nail, carry from 40 to 90,000 pouds. They descend the Kama as far as Laischova, and then go up the Volga to Nishnei-Novgorod the great staple.

The salt-works near Staraja-Rusa, in the government of Novgorod, produced in eleven years (from 1777 to 1788) 1,526,778 pouds. Those at Archangel yield about from 150 to 200,000 pouds annually.

From 1765 to 1777 the imperial magazines alone sold, on an average, eight millions of pouds every year. The poud is universally fixed at 35 copecks, and as, every thing included, we cannot estimate the annual consumption at less than 12 millions of pouds, this article produces a revenue of 4,200,000 roubles, by which the crown gains at most only two millions.

Yet with all this the demand is greater than the produce; and considerable quantities of foreign salt are annually imported in the harbours of Lipland and Finnland. The importation in 1708 (according to Gueldenstadt) amounted to 492,000 roubles. On the contrary, in 1793 the Taurid exported to the value of 23,000 roubles. So considerable a preponderance of importation, and the daily increasing demand, place it beyond a doubt, that the best possible regulations with regard to the present salt-works, as well as the em ploying to advantage all those mines and lakes hitherto neglected, should be one of the most important concerns for the interior economy of the Empire.

[From Storch's Picture of Russia.]

INDIAN TRODUCTIONS, THE ACQUISITION OF WHICH IS DESIRABLE.

of extensive demand throughout India, Persia, Arabia, and Turkey.

IX.-The Incense Shrub abounds principally in Arabia; but some are found in different parts of Hindoostan, such as the sandy strip, between the Mogul and the peninsula, to adopt an expression used by Europeans, northeast of Berar. This vegetable is named by Linnæus, Olibaceum, aut thus, and arbor thurifera: by the Hindoos, Abirquajar. This low scrambling tree is not beautiful; its branches are thin, few, stunted, and contorted; its leaves, like those of the lentisk, are glabrous: the bark of this vegetable, which rises only to the heighth of 9 or 10 feet in Hin、 doostan, where it is not common, is wrinkled and cracked by an infinity of clefts, in colour of a grey white, and shining. It produces a gum which flows spontaneously from the clefts during seven or eight months of the year. It is odoriferous, dry, friable, hard, of a red brown, and sometimes whitish; in tears oblong, or rounded, dull on the outside, brilliant within; of an acrid taste, bitter, and of a very penetrating smell, when recently distilled, especially if burnt. This aromatio gum, useful on many occasions, is highly valued, and sold very dear, even in India.

X.-The Benjoin, named in Hindoostance, dallengini, is a little gummy tree, which grows in the kingdoms of Siam and Ava, also in Java, in the Molucca isles, in Sunda, at Silote, and in the country of Tepra, near Bengal. The illustrious Jussicu, says, that the tree which produces the benjoin, is very little known to us, he gives it the name of laurus benzoin. This little tree, has an

rama, p. 609.]

We resume our consideration of those Indian vegetables with which we ought to desire a better acquaintance, by adverting in the next place to

VII.-VARIETIES OF THE PALM-TREE. The pendanus farinosus, different from that named by botanists odoratissimus: The apple palm, originally from the islands of Nicobar, which the English, on the account of it given by Mr. Bools, have transplanted into their botanic garden at Bengal. This valuable palm yields a very large fruit, weighing 18 to 25 lbs., it contains a farinaceous substance, (whence I have taken the name I have given it above) wholesome, pleasant, and nutritive. It might be easily transplanted, or rather naturalized, in tlie West-India islands.

VIII.-The White Poppy of Bahar, yields the finest opium in the world, a commodity

some naturalists in the family of laurels, but according to others does not belong to that genus: if I might take leave to place it ac cording to my opinion, I should associate it with the cinnamon tree, which is well known to be of the laurel family. The Hindoos call the cinnamon dalchija; and the other as we have seen, dalbengéni. Although the resemblance of name is no authority, according to our principles of botany, to arrange a vegetable rather in such a family than in such another, yet I must say, that the Hindoos make a kind of custom of taking for the root of the word, the best known plant of the kind, and they place the name of this plant either in the first or last syllable of the appellation which they intend to form. The tenjoin shrub, or rather little tree, rises to the heighth of about 15 or 16 feet; its form is pyramidical and regular, delicate, and pretty; its leaves are nearly 5 or 6 inches in length, an inch and half to two inches in breadth; thick and numerous; in colour black green; the nerves are a red purple, many,

and highly raised; the wood is compact, close, hard, of a reddish yellow; the gum issues from incisions made in the branches and trunk of the tree, twice a year, during the vigour of the tree, from the age of five or six years, to fifteen or sixteen; and sometimes when it has not been over drawn, even to its thirtieth year. This gum is received into little bags made of hair, properly placed to receive the discharge from each incision; which is made in the form of a cross, and dep enough to penetrate the inner bark, it is white lightly tinged with yellow, glutinous and transparent, coagulates, hardens, and little by little, becomes of a clear lemon colour; and when not mixed is bright. The wood is reserved for union with that of sandal, of which torches and scented lights are made for burning in the temples, and at domestic festivals. It also composes part of those piles which are used in burning the bodies of the dead.

XI.-The tree which produces the Oil of wood, a valuable drug, useful to every kind of construction in wood, and especially to ships and vessels. This resinous oil is extracted

from a species of teak, a beautiful kind of tree, native of Pegu; by burning the tree: the fire consuming the woody parts, causes this kind of varnish to run freely from all parts of the trunk and branches of this vegetable. This varnish is of a strong and aromatic odour, but not injurious to the animal economy, nor productive of head-achs, as turpentine is. It is employed in painting wood-works, timbers, and furniture, either pure or mixed with any kind of colour; for this oil takes every pigment, from white to the deepest black. This oil of wood is drying, preserves wood from cracks, repells insects and verinin, preserves the wood for many years from being wormeaten, as well as from the attacks of different kinds of marine animals. In proof of this, the vessels built at Surat and Pegu, which are always carefully coated with this resinous oil, as well within as without, last, it is said, three centuries. A ship taken in 1762 by Comte d'Estaing, in the Persian gulph, was in good condition, although it had been off the stocks 170 years. To preserve artillery, the Europeans coat it first with the juice of aloes, and then with the oil of wood.

XII. An object which it is very desirable to naturalize in the colonies, as being extremely useful, as well for health, as for commerce, and even for luxury, is the agallochum, called by the several names of aloes, columbo, agal wood, and yellow medicinal wood. This tree which the Hindoos call pérénépalk, is a magnificent present from the hand of nature; it unites on the same branch three dis

tinct parts, all of them valuable. The bark yields that sweet, wholesome, and pleasant perfume, named agal wood, which is sold for its weight in gold; the inner bark of this vegetable is a good remedy against putrid and bilious fevers; and those occasioned by the insalubrity of the air, such, for example, as the yellow fever; decoctions of it are gi ven several times a day to the sick: it is also employed with success, infused in white wine, or in brandy, or arrack, against pains in the stomach occasioned by over fatigue, also against the marasmus. This remedy is tonic and corroborative. The interior, or woody part, which the Chinese name rosewood, on account of its colour and scent, is useful to the cabinet maker, who converts it into most beautiful furniture; whether we consider the polish of which it is capable, its colour, or the resemblance of its scent to that of a most valued flower.

XIII. The tree named Babeila, of the genus acacia, of the family of the mimosas; this tree feeds the winged insects which yield the gum lac, which is called in Hindoostan lakinia. I do not doubt, but that this useful vegetable, as well as the insects which it supports, would succeed in the climate of the Isle of France. It would be a means of increasing the revenue of that colony, and that without occupying much space or the labour of many individuals.

XIV-Among the plants which yield indigo, there is one, the fecula of which is a green, capable of dyeing. The extractive particles of the yellow and blue, are combined in such proportion, in such quantity, and with such cohesion, that the green colour which they furnish, may be fixed successfully on all substances, whether animal or vege table, intended to be dyed. This plant is named dina-xang, and the Cochin Chinese have the skill to extract from it a green indigo, with which they dye every possible shade of this colour, i. c. of green. This plant, almost unknown to Europeans, would be a valuable acquisition, could it be procured and naturalized in our colonies; the cultivation of it would augment their riches, and the produce would be of the utmost utility to our arts.

XV. The tree which produces the wedding, and which is called bombax, in Hindoo hadipé, is large and of a noble character. It rises straight up to the height of 24 of 25 feet, and readily grows in all sorts of soils, without care or culture. It is remarkable by the green colour of its bark, which is delicate and smooth.

The fruit of this tree, which has not vet struck the attention of any traveller, is hevertheless of the greatest utility. It is much

larger and longer, than the pods of the cotton plant, and incloses a very fine and silky down, which the Hindoos do not employ in manufactures because the staple is too short: but the wool is capable of making the most beautiful felts; as I have learned from experience. When I returned to France, in 1788, I brought a dozen pounds with me; with part of it I had a hat made, which was thought equally beautiful with those made of beaver, as a substitute for which I used it. Of this trial I warrant the truth; and every confirmation of it may easily be obtained. This article, therefore, may become of importance to the revenue of our colonies, and a farther assistance to our commerce and manufactures.

Several years after the trial of which I have spoken, in reading the work of M. Poupée Desportes, on the pharmacopeia of St. Domingo, I found the following passage; "The advantage which might be derived from the cotton of this tree, (called Mapou at St. Domingo) deserves our attention. All the world admires the beauty, the delicacy, and the goodness of the beaver hats of England. These good qualities are owing to the down contained in the fruit of this tree, which the English employ in the manufacture of the article mentioned." He adds,

The French, so ingenious in the invention and perfecting of arts, might derive great advantages from the treasures which are offered them by our colonies."

Let me be permitted before I close this division, of Vegetables, to mention three species of turness, originally found in Tibet, different from those of Europe; and which the English have transplanted into Bengal; also a species of aubergine, called vulgarly, bringèle or ivory méringèle, because of its whiteness, transplanted also from the same country to the banks of the Ganges, and to the other British possessions on the coasts of Coromandel, and Orissa. This is a leguminous fruit, large and delicious, weighing five or six pounds. It is in all probability, the most bulky, and most useful, of all the solanums which are known.

This excellent production recalls to my mind, a root, or opening sprout, of the palin; of which I have spoken in my memoir on the cocoa-tree, and a root named in Bengal cherik, a species of smail topinambour, vulgarly called earth-pear: a wholesome and nutritive root, of a deep yellow colour, like the Indian saffron, nanied by the botahists curcuma, or terra merita. The cherik yields a plentiful, delicate, and agreeable nourishment. This acquisition would add to the subsistence of our colonies. Tibet, Cashmir, Bahar, Lahor, Bengal, and the whole of Hindoostan, as well as the neighbouring countries, would furaish an ample

harvest of novelties; as would also the island of Ceylon, to any traveller of adequate knowledge and discernment. Ceylon produces a kind of chesnut very large and farinaceous, which the Portuguese call coti-caval, because this fruit resembles certain parts of a horse.

I ought not to emit the little grain which succeeds in clarifying in a short space of time, the most muddy water,

as well as other liquors, and even wines, without injuring either their flavour, or their good qualities. It is a kind of little round bean, called in Tamul, tétan-cote, of which I do not know the botanic name, as I have never seen a description of it. This grain is the production of a shrub which grows in different provinces, as well in the north, as in what is called the Peninsula on this side the Ganges. Its properties render it valuable for domestic uses, and for some

arts.

Not having had opportunity of observing the flowers, I cannot describe them.

These countries, rich in the productions of the three kingdoms, abound in vegetables, which are well adapted to medical purposes, and indeeed are in daily use in physic. The most part are unknown to us, as well as their properties. The astonishing effects which they produce before the eyes of Europeans, ought to have roused their emulation to transmit the knowledge of them to their compatriots, and not the knowledge of them only, but the acquisition, and means of expe rimental acquaintance with them.

The attempt, I acknowledge, is not of easy exccution without powerful means of success. I myself have made the experiment, but to my sorrow. In 1788, of æ great number of seeds which I entrusted to a captain of an Indiaman, not any reached the places to which I had addressed them.

[The Animals of India will form subse quent articles.]

SKETCH OF THE HISTORY AND ADVAN
TAGES OF COMMERCE.

Impiger extremos curris mercator ad Indos,
Per mare pauperiem fugiens,, per saxa, per ignes,

:

HOR.

THE Comprehensive genius of man has been ever active, in searching after some new and latent good, which by rendering him more wise, will consequently render him more happy but never has it been more conspicuously, or more usefully employed, than in the invention of commerce. If we consider this attentively, and trace its rise, its progress, and its consequences, we shall at once be struck with the multiplied advantages it affords mankind, and the long train of blessings, which have never failed to follow it in every country where it has been steadily pur