THE whole property in land in St. Domingo is derived originally from the king, not through a feodal fiction, but in the truest and strictest sense of the word. It was

parcelled out into lots, and bestowed by charter, which his majesty's representatives were empowered to grant. The lots were usually 64, 100, or 225 squares, in, or equivalent to, regular square figures.*

After so long a period of encouragement, and of exertion, as were conspicuous in this island, few lands remained, in 1789, to be granted, except perhaps in the very inaccessible heights of mountains; when lands therefore were wanted, they were usually purchased from their owners. From the extraordinary demands, the prices rose progressively to an uncommon height.

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But, in whatever manner lands may be obtained, an entry is made originally, by the assistance of a proper officer, who opens the lines in the woods, and places stamped buts in the angles. It is object of attention to revisit the lines occasionally, to clear away the bushes from around the buts; and even to place marks, at certain distances in the lines, of exotic strong plants, as bamboos, to prevent any involuntary trespass on the part of the neighbours.

Very few of those individuals who undertake the cultivation of coffee are sufficiently attentive to make a proper choice of the

* For the better understanding of this, and of several other articles, the square is really a square of land, 350 feet in length and breadth, or of a hundred paces; the pace being three feet and a half square. The French foot, or pied de roi, is longer than the English one by 8 lines and the tenth of a line. It has 12 inches, and the inch 12 lines. According to calculation, three English acres are equal to a square and ths; so that 300 acres will amount to 116 squares and about a third.

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most suitable grounds for this purpose. the coffee lands are more or less removed to the fastnesses of mountains, and rendered difficult of access by the intricate woods which cover the declivities, chance, occasion, and accidental conveniences, more frequently determine the choice, than theoretical investigation of properties, and actual local knowledge of the ground, and of its expositions. Such are the common omissions in the beginning; and, such being the case, it becomes the business of the purchaser to be satisfied, and to endeavour to turn to the best account, by industry and attention, that portion which has fallen to his lot.

But though purchases are often made at random, no such hardship is inseparably connected with the thing itself. Judicious inquiry or choice will find several foundations, more or less safe, from which the settler may gain information.

The first and most general, as also the easiest of all, is the knowledge of the district and the state of the plantations around the settlement in view. It is well known that in the same parish, and even on the same estate, the lands are of great variety, both in point of the intrinsic quality of soil, and

as affected by situation. However, when the adjoining estates exhibit plantations luxuriant, productive, and lasting, it is an encouraging prognostic for the planter who fixes in the neighbourhood.

In the next place, information may be gathered from general experience; for instance, it is a fact beyond contradiction, that the low mountains, and those near to the champaign country, are by far less proper for the production of coffee than those in high and interior situations. The former are hot, often dry, and sometimes, which is still worse, liable to the parching, destructive air of the sea; and it is known that coffee-trees delight in a cool climate, in an open or permeable virgin soil, frequently watered by rains, the defect of which no other watering (though ever so practicable and carefully executed) can properly supply. On the first or lower mountains, the soil is in general light and shallow; the tree of course is short-lived, both because its perpendicular root soon meets with the gravel-stone, and because the vegetative surface is washed away in a short time, by the combined effect of weeding, of rain, and declivity of descent. The crops, in such cases, must be kept up by making new plantations every year; and in this manner, the whole land will be worn out in a short time, if of moderate extent. The crops also are rapid; and, in such situations, more hands and more platforms are required for the harvest.

On the contrary, the climate is cooler on the high mountains; the soil is always

deeper and more firm; rain is more frequent; in general, the declivity is less; the time of crop is longer, and more convenient; the trees, in short, are more lasting: all this is seen on the first appearance. A fuller and more luxuriant vegetation, majestic trees, great intricacy of underwood, and myriads of tropical creeping plants, proclaim it at once. You see that the powers of greater coolness have accumulated for ages, with unbounded profusion, the spoils of nature, of which the genial mould is formed, being less rapidly dissipated by the effects of the sun on the higher mountains than on the scorched hills below.

I do not pretend to say that lands of the first kind are destitute of advantages, specious at first sight, and too apt to ensnare the inexperienced people of the towns. First there is an easier access and easier means of carriage; besides this convenience, on the lower mountains, the trees are planted nearer, because they do not arrive to size. Thus, instead of 2,500 in a square, perhaps there may be 8,000; and thus the same extent, by its greater number of trees, will yield as much as in a better soil; but if the season be dry, the grain will be blasted or empty, mildewed or scorched; and, in the latter case, the ends of the branches will wither. Lastly, the trees will be of short duration a great extent of land will be necessary to supply the plantations every year, and work will be gradually more distant and inconvenient.

Upon the whole, personal convenience must be sacrificed; the highest and the remotest lands are preferable, notwithstanding the trouble and fatigue of climbing mountains on horseback, and the expense of having a great number of mules for carriage.

The soil on the mountains consists generally of a bed of mould, more or less deep; but which ought not to be less than four or five feet. It lies upon quick-rock, or upon a kind of soft stone (tuff) which seems to be formed from clay.

The softest, that is the most friable earth, is certainly the best of all, because it is the most permeable both to water and to the roots of plants, if (what is seldom the case) the declivity be gentle, so that it be in no danger of being washed away. But in general, in steep grounds, a firm but not clayey earth, friable by hard pressure, mixed with a proportion of sand, or gravel, or small stones, through which water may find an easy way, is the most desirable.

The native plants and native trees furnish a sure indication. Where vegetation is profuse, the trees large, high, thick, and numerous, and the underwood and creeping plants luxuriant, the ground cannot fail to be rich. This, however, admits of exception. Mahogany, all the very hard or resin

trees, and even the great palm tree,* when in abundance, are an evidence of dry and sometimes of barren ground. But the several kinds of cedar, the other trees of a soft contexture, and of white wood, as also a kind of lesser palm tree (called here chaplet), are an evidence of fresh and good soil. But some depth is always required.

Some grounds are, in a great measure, covered with white limestone, so as to have, from a distance, the appearance of a wilderness of snow; but the stone is intermixed with a very vegetative mould. Planting is more difficult in such places, symmetry less regular. But the stones prevent the mould from being washed away; and if the climate is rainy, the trees grow remarkably fine, productive, and lasting.

The colour of the ground is of no great consequence; though it must be owned, that such as is somewhat reddish has, oftener than others, the principal desirable qualities. The climate of the mountains, though very rainy, is healthy.

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The temperature is variable, and in proportion to the elevation and aspect. On my estate, I have seen Reaumur's thermometer so low as 10°, equal to 55° of Fahr., during the rains of winter, in an open room; and I never saw it, in summer, higher than 21°, while at the Cape it rises above 34°. In July and August, after a shower of rain, warm clothes, a blanket, and even fire, are by no means unacceptable. There are other mountains still cooler than this, and yet planted with coffee. It is pretended that something like ice has been observed in the highest peaks; but I cannot warrant it. Whatever it may be, instances are found of places so cool and wet, that though the coffee trees grow large in size, they yield very little fruit for several years, or indeed until large tracts are cleared on every side. But then they seldom fail of making amends for their sluggishness, when the ground is not defective.

In regard to aspect, north and west are the best, in low and hot places, because they are cooler. On the contrary, the east and south on the highest mountains; for on the north and on the west aspects of the high mountains, the trees, from want of sufficient heat, grow rapidly into a vast luxuriance of wood, and then yield very little fruit; and frequently (though this happens also sometimes from external causes) lose their leaves; the tops of their branches wither; all the main inferior boughs die and fall off; the trunk, chiefly near the root, becomes overrun with moss and parasitical weeds, which suffocate the

tree.

The only remedy, and happily a very efficacious one, is a severe pruning; but it is not a short nor a trifling labour.

*Otherwise cabbage trees.

It must, however, be observed, that even on the highest mountains, the soil, in the warmer aspects, is lighter and softer, and of course less durable, being triturated, as it were, by the continual piercing influence of the sun. The expositions to the east are likewise more liable to the usual breeze, the strength of which is in proportion to the elevation. In general, it is remarked that strong and lasting winds, from any quarter, are hurtful to the coffee-trees; and, such being the case, if the declivities to the north and west are easy and exposed, so as to admit freely the genial influence of the sun, such aspect may be preferable, even though pruning should become necessary; an operation, however, which, as we shall see in the third chapter, may be in a great measure evaded by proper management and culture.

It appears, then, from what has been said, that the highest or the lowest situations are not the best; but rather those considerably above the middle of the mountains.

In order to effect an establishment with facility, some other conveniences are required. 1st, That the open or great road be not at too great a distance.

2ndly, The vicinity of other plantations, from whence a supply of ground provisions, and especially of plants, may be gotten; as also for the sake of intercourse with rational

creatures.

3rdly,-Running water.

4thly, Timber, and such trees or plants as afford thatch.

5thly,-Limestone, and stone for other

purposes.

6thly,-Some easy spot where the settlement may be effected.

It is certain that many, or the most, of those things, however necessary, are sometimes wanting, and supplied by the industry of the planter; but always at great expense and toil, chiefly in the first period.

It results, then, from what I have said, that the man who has in view the settlement of a coffee plantation, after maturely weighing the general observations pointed out, will act more prudently, if, before he closes the bargain, he himself visits the premises; carrying with him two or three negroes, with provisions and tools, to enable him to explore, in the best manner he can, the qualities of the soil and the circumstances of his intended estate. On doing this, he must examine the general exposition (for every circle of hills has two sides of opposite aspect), he must inform himself if there is water, stone for building, limestone, timber, thatch; and he must ascertain the situations in which all these are to be found. He must cause the ground to be dug in different places, as deep as possible; that he may, as far as he is able, satisfy himself of its general and particular qualities. In this manner, also,

he will observe the state of the natural productions, and he will form an idea of difficulty or ease of access, and of the circumstances of the neighbourhood.

It is highly essential, that on the first examination, the planter should determine, as near as possible, the place of his chief settlement.

First, if a public road passes through his estate, he ought to fix his dwelling at some distance from it, lest he be disturbed by passengers, either individually, or in the interior order and discipline of his negroes. From such a road there are few advantages, and a great number of inconveniences.

Secondly, to fix upon the centre of the tenement is a very material precaution, chiefly if the estate is extensive, and the lands not of durable quality. But, though the settlement should be fixed in the centre, yet the spot may be there too steep; and, besides, regard must be had to the vicinity of water, timber, and stone.

However, where every necessary thing does not lie contiguous, I would prefer to give up those accessory conveniences, rather than abandon the centre, especially if water can be conducted thereto through a pipe. The establishment is permanent, and its situation determines for life the convenience and easiness of every future service; and the fatigue of ordinary labour is much increased, when daily performed at a great distance. This is, in a great measure, guarded against by fixing the settlement in a centre of the tenement. Therefore, in looking forward to this advantage, it appears more eligible that building be more laborious, either from the carriage of materials, or from the trenchings necessary to level the spot, than to fix in a place from which the future plantations will be greatly distant.

This has seldom been considered; seldom have the previous inquiries hinted at been attended to. The purchase is frequently made without proper, indeed without any examination. As soon as,

after a journey always deemed tedious, one has set foot upon the first spot of his land, he thinks himself happy in not being obliged to go further; and thus plants his establishment on the most promising spot within the reach of his eye. To this spot he is confined by sluggishness, not regarding the immense extent which lies before him; and which, perhaps, affords better situations at a convenient distance. In consequence of this inattention or sloth, after a period of fifteen or twenty years, a number of planters are forced to divide or to change their settlement, both of which are exceedingly expensive and toilsome. But the present distance from the plantations is still more wasteful and fatiguing.

I shall suppose, then, that the settler has

attended duly to all the points above mentioned, and that he is ready to begin his operations.

There are, even in the most rainy districts, certain periods, during Lent or in October, when there are intervals of dry weather. These should be laid hold of for commencing the settlement, particularly the first.

Whatever the circumstances of the planter may be, in point of fortune,* I would by no means advise him to set out with a great number of negroes, particularly if he be under the necessity of carrying provisions and other things from a great distance; and if he cannot command a plentiful supply of victuals from some plantation in the neighbourhood. If he has not that supply, six, or at most twelve male negroes, with one or two women, will be found sufficient to make the first essay. It is even necessary that he provide for the feeding of these, with certainty and abundance, for which purpose he should endeavour to place provisions in store at some one or other of the adjoining estates. In entering this undertaking, each negroe must be provided with a hoe, a scraper, an axe, and a bill; two suits of clothes, a jacket, a hat, and a proportion of provisions. Besides, the master must have a spare axe for each negro, as well as the most necessary carpenter's tools; such as a saw, a wimble, a level, a hammer, a hatchet, two borers, an adze, a gouge, a handled grinding-stone, and a provision of nails of different sizes. As to his own victuals and conveniences, it is supposed he will not forget them; only I shall recommend that he do not overburthen himself.

I have in this business used the word master, though overseer more properly, perhaps, might be substituted in its place, as it seldom happens that the landlord submits himself to the hardships of a first settlement. However, if the planter really values his undertaking, he must be sensible that everything is of consequence in the election of the site, and in the planning the early foundations upon which future comfort and convenience do entirely depend. This is the period, too, when compassionate and industrious attention is necessary for the encouragement of his negroes. If he feels in

* Many tradesmen and artificers, who would not fail to make fortunes honestly in their own line, are often ambitious of forming settlements too soon, and with scanty funds. They either neglect, or give up entirely, their original business, for a new one, which, by want of proper stock, affords less benefit. I would not advise any man to undertake a settlement, who has not the command of three or four thousand pounds sterling, independent of the land purchased.

After every person is properly accommodated in the huts, felling down a tract of wood is the next operation, in order to form a plantation.

The first part of this business is to clear the underwood; that is, to cut all the weeds, shrubs, creeping plants, and such trees as can be made to fall by the hedging bill. The whole of these must be cut as low as possible.

Next, the larger trees require to be felled down with the axe. It is proper to begin this work in the lowest grounds, and to proceed upwards; so that the trees may fall successively upon each other, as the declivity directs. The negroes must be ordered to cut as they conveniently can, but not to tear up the roots, as these will preserve the ground during the period of culture. In the prosecution of this work, proper attention is necessary, to prevent the accidents which may happen from the falling of trees. The negroes are to be separated into parties of two or three, and placed at distances, without reach of the fall of the trees of another party. It is proper to cut the tree on the lower side chiefly, to determine the fall towards the declivity. The fall requires to be strictly watched, the negroes being taught to secure themselves in proper time. Sometimes the boughs and branches of several trees are so much entangled together by creeping plant (lianas) that twelve or more are entirely cut before they actually fall; then attention is more necessary, as danger increases; and before the general crash, the negroes must have re

tired to a distance.

When a sufficient extent of land is felled down, the next is to lop; that is, to cut off the lesser branches, and spread them about, to facilitate the communication of the fire; it will, however, be proper to remove them from the trunks of good timber, to prevent those from being burnt. The boughs of greater size, such particularly as are beyond the reach of fire, must also be cut to the ground.* Then this left to dry for a few days; another tract of land being, in the meantime, cleared, felled down, and lopped

*Now is the time to make the lime-kilns or pits.

in the above manner; and so on, until the intended plantations are fully completed.

The state of the weather will determine the time of burning; but a person must not wait till the leaves are decayed and fallen, for these are the first fuel. A moderate breeze facilitates this business, and the proper time to begin is, after the sun has exhaled the dew, and warmed the wood, there being, at the same time, no appearance of rain. Under these circumstances, fire is lighted up to windward, in several places at once. But if the breeze is very strong, the flames will pass too rapidly for the burning of the larger boughs; in which case, fire must be put first to the leeward, then windward, at small distances from the first fire, and so on, that the flames may join. Regard ought also to be had to the declivity; if the breeze is moderate, the fire must be lighted below; if strong, above. The huts must be guarded from the flame, and the borders of the standing woodland cautiously cleaned, lest the fire should communicate.

After the fire is entirely extinguished, a quantity of small wood sometimes remains unconsumed; this must be gathered into heaps and burned again.

But this must be avoided, as much as possible, by proper precautions in the first burnings; because the ground is often burned into brick by these great fires.

Nay, in general, though ashes are a kind of manure, on account of the alkaline salt which they contain, it is to be wished that burning could be dispensed with, because it destroys more of the salts contained in the mould than the ashes supply; and besides, the mouldering of the raw wood affords a manure, which is hereby annihilated. But, if this is attempted, the quantity of wood, sometimes very great, should be arranged into straight and parallel rows, between which the coffee trees may be planted. Where these must be at small distances from each other, this would become difficult. Besides, nothing could be sown in those thick covered trenches. On the other hand, this would be attended with the additional advantage of furnishing, in process of time, a good manure; of sheltering the young trees from the wind; and dividing the streams of rain-water, which are equally hurtful. This, I know, has been practised with success, in plantations where there was a great number of hands, and where the trees were planted at very large distances. But I would not venture to try it in the first settlement, where a few negroes are employed, and where every spot must be converted into use, for a speedy and ample supply of ground-provisions and vegetables of all

sorts.

I now suppose that the ground is entirely cleared. As it is my design to put together,

in the third chapter, all that relates to the cultivation of the coffee-trees, I shall here enter into a detail of all the accessory works and plantations; and first, of the roads to and from the fields—an article_necessary chiefly where the land is steep. In general the forming of roads is postponed for some time after the early settlement, though not properly.

If the lands have only a small declivity, alleys ought to be marked out with a line and pickets. It then would be proper that a general division of the estate be drawn upon a chart, and that it be accurately followed. But the nature of the ground seldom permits to adopt that regular method.

When the declivity exceeds fifteen degrees, roads or paths must be traced and opened, by means of the level and hoe.

The levels employed here are of two different frames.

The first consists of two laths of wood joined together in an angular form, with a tenon and mortise, so that the two ends are six feet distant from each other. At the angle a plummet is fixed, and falls upon a transverse lath one foot distant from the top, upon which the different degrees of declivity are marked, by inches or half inches, for a fathom or six feet. The other, which is less variable, as intended for the use of the negroes, consists of a lath with two parallel feet at six feet distance. The one is fixed, and the other, by means of a very long tenon, goes up and down in the mortise. This tenon is pierced with little holes, corresponding to the degrees of inclination, by inches and half inches; and, as the mortise is also pierced, the tenon being placed at the degree intended for the inclination of the road (suppose six inches for a fathom), is fastened with a pin, through the holes of both the mortise and tenon. Thus the level is liable to no alteration, and the negroe may go on without mistake, as the plummet hanging at the top of the triangle must always fall perpendicular to a mark set upon the lath. It is also obvious that, as the lath is always horizontal, if the lengthened foot goes forwards, the road will descend; if backwards, it will ascend; if both feet are left equal, it will be at the level.

Roads are horizontal, ascending or descending, according to the nature of the ground. But I must observe, that in the first instance they ought still to be almost insensibly inclined, so that the streams of rain-water may be conveyed to the adjacent beds of torrents and rivulets (generally termed ravines), and that, in the latter, the declivity must not exceed six or eight inches for six feet or a fathom, except in cases of necessity; otherwise it will be steep and fatiguing. I must also remark that, whatever be the direction of the road, as