For'rest, Edwin, 1806-72; American actor; b. Philadelphia; first appeared on the stage, 1820; made his first appearance in New York, as Othello, 1826; toured throughout the U. S.; also played in England and on the Continent. By reason of his fine form, noble presence, and natural genius, was preeminent in such parts as Othello, Spartacus, Jack Cade, and Metamora. A quarrel with Macready, the English tragedian, was taken advantage of by the populace at the time of the political "American movement, and in May, 1849, when Macready was playing at the Astor Place Theater, New York, a bloody riot occurred, provoked by the partisans of the respective actors. Forrest announced his retirement, 1858, but played at intervals till 1871; thereafter gave public readings from Shakespeare. He left a fund to establish a home for aged and indigent actors.

Forrest, Nathan Bedford, 1821-77; American military officer; b. Bedford Co., Tenn.; became a real-estate broker and slave dealer in Mississippi, and later a cotton grower in Coahoma Co., Miss.; joined the Tennessee Mounted Rifles, June, 1861; raised and largely equipped a regiment of cavalry for the Confederate army, and was chosen lieutenant colonel; took a conspicuous part at Fort Donelson, and, as colonel, at Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing); was assigned to command of cavalry at Chattanooga, 1862; made brigadier general and placed in command at Murfreesboro. Commanded a brigade at Parker's Crossroads and at Chickamauga; promoted major general, November, 1863, and placed in command of the cavalry in N. Mississippi; was in command at the capture of Fort Pillow, 1864; promoted lieutenant general, February, 1865; surrendered at Gainesville, May, 1865; later, and till 1874, was president of Selma, Marion & Memphis Railway Company.

Förster (för'stěr), Ernst Joachim, 1800-85; German painter and writer on art; b. Münchengosserstadt; was one of the founders of the school of which Kaulbach was the most dis

tinguished pupil. Förster's hand is seen in frescoes in the Aula at Rome, in the Glyp: tothek and Arcade at Munich, and in the chapel of San Georgio at Padua, whose frescoes he restored. He wrote a large number of works

on art.

FORT-DE-FRANCE

manufacturer at Bradford; was member of Parliament from 1861 till his death; Under Secretary of the Colonies, 1865–66; had much to do with passing the Education Bill of 1870 and the Ballot Bill of 1871, and was a supporter of imperial federation. In 1875, was elected Lord Rector of Aberdeen Univ. Was Chief Secretary for Ireland, 1880–82.

Fort, fortification, usually inclosed and provided with flanking arrangements and accessory defenses, which generally are lacking in the smaller works known as redoubts. In the U. S. the military posts of the interior are known as forts, although generally without fortifications. See FORTIFICATION; FORTRESS.

Fort Ad'ams, fortification on Brenton's Point, entrance to Newport Harbor, R. I.; planned and built, 1828-38; is one of the few works of the system of seacoast defense in the U. S. designed to sustain a regular siege.

Fort Bra'dy, military post at Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.; is an important position, com manding the St. Mary's River and canal.

Fort Can'by, one of the defenses of the mouth of the Columbia River; on Cape Hancock or Disappointment, Pacific Co., Wash.

Fort Chip'ewayan, Hudson Bay post near the SW. end of Lake Athabasca, Canada; at the Missionaries have mouth of the Athabasca. long maintained an orphanage here with sixty to a hundred inmates, making the place the most populous white station in the Mackenzie River basin between Lake Athabasca and the Arctic Ocean.

Fort Church'ill, Hudson Bay post at the mouth of the Churchill River, Canada. The W. coast of Hudson Bay is low, with shallow water, and the only harbor available for large vessels at all stages of the tide is at Fort Churchill, where there is perfect shelter, an easy entrance, and six to eight fathoms of

water.

Fort Dear'born, a fort erected, 1804-5, on the site now occupied by the city of Chicago. In 1812, Capt. Nathan Heald, at the head of a garrison of sixty-seven men and accompanied by some thirty settlers, abandoned the fort and made their way toward Detroit, but en route were attacked by an overpowering force of The fort was destroyed by the Miami Indians, Indians, and most of the party were killed. but was rebuilt in 1816, evacuated in 1823, reoccupied in 1828, and finally demolished in

1856.

Fort-de-France (fōr-de-frons'), capital of Martinique, French W. Indies; on low land bordering Port Royal Bay, near the S. end of the island; was the principal port till supplanted by St. Pierre, which was destroyed by the eruption of Mont Pelée, 1902. The bay is defended by Fort St. Louis, an important post during the French and English wars. is a small park containing a monument to the Empress Josephine, who was born near the place. Pop. (1901) 15,000.

There

FORT DODGE

FORTIFICATION

abt. 15,000.

Fort Don'elson and Fort Hen'ry, works erected by the Confederates during the Civil War, in NW. Tennessee; the former on the left bank of the Cumberland, the latter on the right bank of the Tennessee; distant from each other about 12 m., and connected by a direct road. In February, 1862, a combined Union naval and land expedition moved against them. Admiral Foote compelled the surrender of Fort

Henry, February 6th, but the garrison escaped to Fort Donelson; Gen. Grant besieged Fort Donelson, February 13th, and made an ineffective assault. Joined by Foote's fleet and reinforced to about 27,000 men, he projected a combined attack, but finally this was undertaken by the gunboats alone, which were compelled to retire, disabled. On the 15th the Confederates made a sally, but were driven back. Grant now made preparations for a general attack, but the Confederates, finding the line of siege complete, had decided to surrender. To this, however, Gen. Pillow and Gen. Floyd would not accede, and on the night of the 15th they escaped with some 2,000 men. On the 16th, Gen. Buckner surrendered unconditionally, and 65 cannon, 17,000 small arms, and about 1,400 prisoners came into Grant's possession. Total Union loss, 2,832.

Fort Duquesne (dū-kān'), erected, 1754, at beginning of French War, at junction of Allegheny and Monongehela rivers; occupied by French, who defeated force under Braddock sent out against it, 1755; abandoned and burned, 1758; rebuilt by Gen. Forbes and named Fort Pitt. Site now occupied by city of Pittsburg.

Fort Ed'ward, village in Washington Co., N. Y.; on the Hudson River; 28 m. N. of Troy; has a seminary and collegiate institute, and extensive manufactures, including iron, brass, paper, lumber, machinery, and stoneware. The first fortification here was built 1709; another and larger one called Fort Lyman was built 1755, but the present name was soon substituted in honor of Edward, Duke of York. Fort Edward was of importance during the old French and Indian wars, and during the Revolution was occupied in turn by British and Americans. Pop. (1905) 3,806.

Fortescue (fōr'těs-kū), John, abt. 1395-1476; English jurist; became sergeant at law, 1429; one of the king's sergeants, 1441; was Chief Justice of the King's Bench, 1442-60; escaped with Henry VI into Scotland, 1461; attainted of high treason, 1463; escaped with Queen Margaret to the Continent; pardoned by Edward IV, 1473. Wrote "On the Praises of the British Laws," in Latin, a masterly exposition of English law; and "The Governance of England," otherwise called "The Difference between an Absolute and Limited Monarchy, as

Fort E'than Al'len, military post established, 1893; near Essex Junction, Vt., about 5 m. E. of Burlington; designed to hold a large garrialong the N. frontier of the U. S. son, and to form one of the cordon of posts

Fort Fish'er, strong earthwork on Federal Point, N. C., between the ocean and the Cape Fear River; erected by the Confederates during the Civil War to guard the mouth of the river. An unsuccessful attack was made in December, 1864, by Union land forces under Gen. Benjamin F. Butler and a fleet of ironclads under Admiral Porter. Another, January 1315, 1865, was made by land forces under Gen. Alfred H. Terry and a fleet of ironclads. The army captured the fort after a desperate fight, in which the total losses on the Federal side were about 1,000; on the Confederate, from 2,000 to 2,500, of whom about 500 were killed or wounded.

Fort Foote, inclosed barbette work with exterior batteries; on the Potomac, 6 m. below Washington; on a commanding bluff of the Maryland shore; constructed during the Civil War, and formed the inner line of defense of the channel of approach by water to Washington.

Forth, river of Scotland, E. side; rises in two branches, the Avendhu and the Duchray, which unite at Aberfoyle; then passes, with many windings, through the most picturesque part of Scotland, by Stirling, and a little above Alloa it empties into the Firth of Forth; navigable for vessels of 100 tons to Stirling, and to Alloa for vessels of 300 tons; communicates with the Clyde by a canal 38 m. long. Has important fisheries of herring, whitefish, and salmon. In 1889 a great railway bridge, one of the most remarkable in the world, was erected across the Forth at Queensferry.

Fort Ham'ilton, fort on the E. shore of the Narrows, the principal entrance to New York Harbor.

the U. S.; on Sandy Hook, N. J.; designed to Fort Han'cock, one of the strongest forts in

control the entrance to the lower New York Bay. Attached to the fort are grounds used in testing guns, armor, projectiles, etc.

Fort Hen'ry. See FORT DONELSON and FORT HENRY.

con

Fortifica'tion, the art of rendering a military position defensible against the attacks of superior numbers; also the work or works erected for that purpose. The art of fortification is usually divided into two branches-permanent fortification and field work or temporary fortification. Permanent fortifications are structed to defend a position of permanent importance, and are made of durable materials. Field fortifications are intended to serve a temporary purpose, and the materials employed are those found ready at hand. The principles of the art are essentially the same in both. The origin of fortification goes back to the organization of society. The character of the works has conformed to that of weapons em

FORTIFICATION

ployed in the various ages of mankind. Thus among the wild tribes of remote times who were armed with clubs and weapons of stone, a wooden barricade or a bank of earth surmounted by a hedge was an efficient defensive work. The introduction of metal tools rendered these casy of destruction, and a wall of masonry was the next step in advance. As nations grew in power the height and thickness of these walls were increased. Some are said to have been 100 ft. high. The greater their height, the greater the difficulty of scaling and the more effective were the missiles thrown from them. Greater thickness provided more space on top of the wall for engines of war. The walls of Babylon are said to have been 70 ft. thick, built of two parallel walls with the intervening space filled with earth. A thin wall, to protect or cover the men on top, was

built along the front part about the height of a man, with openings or embrasures through which stones and arrows were hurled against the enemy. To command the foot of the wall, brackets were built out, and upon these were placed parapet walls with embrasures. Towers projecting beyond the general face of the wall, to provide a line of fire parallel to it, were next added, the distance between the towers being a little less than the range of the weapNext the ditch about the fortification

ons.

was introduced.

The invention and introduction of gunpowder caused a great change in all the methods previously employed. The high walls presented a too vulnerable object to cannon projectiles, and they had to be lowered. Space had to be provided for mounting of guns, and this was accomplished by throwing up a bank of earth against the interior side of the wall, and towers had to be greatly enlarged to receive the cannon, and became bastions. To prevent the walls from being breached from a distance, outworks were thrown up in front of them. The greatest advance at this stage was by the Italians, who in 1527 surrounded Verona by a bastioned work. The great German-sculptor, painter, and architect-Albrecht Dürer, was one of the first modern writers on the subject; his book is dated 1527. Other great writers were Daniel Speckle, a German born in Strassburg in 1536, which city he fortified; Errard de Bar-le-Duc, 1594; De Ville, 1629; Count de Pagan, 1645, and Vauban, 1633. The latter

made many great and radical improvements, rebuilt 300 old fortresses, built thirty-five new ones, and besieged fifty-three. His great talent was displayed in adapting his works to the site, and he brought the system of bastions to a high degree of perfection.

A modern permanent fortification usually consists of an inclosure of earth and masonry, called the enceinte or body of the place, secured by a citadel within and strengthened by works on the exterior, called outworks. The mass of earth employed to cover the bodies of the defenders from the enemy's projectiles is called the parapet. It is raised upon another mass of earth called the rampart, R (Fig. 1). Outside the rampart is the ditch, D, which is made deep and wide enough to offer a serious obstacle to the enemy. Beyond the ditch is the

upon single points. The line of fire is always assumed to be perpendicular to the crest from which the firing takes place.

The tenailled trace, or ground plan, is shown in Fig. 2. It is simple, and it adapts itself well to the ground and provides for a cross fire upon the approaches. For the same length of parapet this plan incloses less space than either of the other systems. The great number and sharpness of its salients render its faces peculiarly liable to enfilade or reverse fires.

Fig. 3 shows the bastioned trace. The great distance between the flanks and the opposite

FIG. 4.

glacis exposes the masonry wall of the flanks to the curved fire of the enemy. To remedy this defect additional outer works were introduced. This system is one of the most complicated and elaborate, and the cost of construction is considerable. In the polygonal system (Fig. 4) the faces are but little ex

tical application of the principles of permanent fortifications are necessarily somewhat modified. They are usually hastily constructed of earth obtained by digging a trench, and are strengthened by such material as may be at hand, often by bags filled with sand or logs, pieces of timber, as may be handy. Obstacles are placed in front. One of the most commonly employed is the "abattis," formed of stout limbs of trees about 15 ft. long, with all

FIG. 5.

the small branches cut off and the large ones pointed and placed toward the enemy. Barbed fence wire is one of the obstacles of modern times used in field fortifications. A hasty intrenchment for infantry is shown in Fig. 5. See FORT; FORTRESS.

gut constituted the first great naval exploit of that commander.

Fort Lafayette', brick fortification, on an artificial island in the Narrows of New York Harbor, directly W. of Fort Hamilton. It was begun 1812, and was originally called Fort Diamond. During the Civil War it was used as a prison for political prisoners and for persons suspected of treasonable designs. The works were partially destroyed by fire, 1868, and the remaining buildings are now chiefly used for the storing of ordnance.

Fort Leav'enworth, post village of Leavenworth Co., Kan.; on the Missouri; 2 m. above Leavenworth; has a U. S. military prison, reservation, and infantry and cavalry school.

Fort McHen'ry, inclosed bastioned pentagon, with exterior batteries, on the W. side of the Patapsco River, forming one of the defenses of the channel of approach to Baltimore, Md.; is

FORT MARION

FORT SCHUYLER

theme for the well-known words of "The Starspangled Banner," by F. S. Key.

Fort Ma'rion, inclosed work at St. Augustine, Fla., begun by the Spaniards abt. 1650, and completed 1756; is the oldest fort in possession of the U. S. Govt. It is not of much value, but is carefully preserved as an object of historic interest.

Fort Mif'flin, one of the inner line of defenses of the port of Philadelphia, Pa.; on Mud Island, Delaware River, below the mouth of the Schuylkill; was attacked by a British man-of-war, October 23, 1777, and after a spirited resistance was taken, November 16th.

Fort Monroe', extensive bastioned fortification on Old Point Comfort, Va., for the defense of Hampton Roads and the water approach to Norfolk and the Gosport navy yard;

stands on the N. side of the channel, Fort Wool (formerly Fort Calhoun) being on the S. side, about a mile distant. Fort Monroe is properly a fortress or fortified place (it is often called Fortress Monroe), as it incloses a large area, and contains within it a number of detached buildings-barracks for soldiers, storehouses, a portion of the workshops of an arsenal, the artillery school of the service, a chapel, etc.

Fort Moultrie (mô'tri), fortification on Sullivan's Island, at the entrance to Charleston harbor, S. C.; built on the site of a rude work of palmetto logs and earth, which was attacked unsuccessfully, 1776, by a British fleet under Sir Peter Parker. It fell into Confederate hands, December, 1860, and with the batteries on Morris Island fired the first guns of the Civil War-on the Star of the West, January 9, 1861.

1864.

An

For'tress, permanent defensive work, larger than an ordinary fort, possessing great strength, and equipped to contain a large garrison and withstand a prolonged siege. cient fortresses differ radically from modern ones in that the attack and defense of the works were vertical before the introduction of guns throwing heavy balls horizontally—a change dating not earlier than 1500 A.D.

while since that time the attack and defense have been horizontal. The modern fortress is low, and not to be seen from afar; its grassy slopes are lost in the landscape. The ancient fortresses, from the time of the early empire in Egypt, as at El Kal or Abydos, to Pierrefonds, NE. of Paris, finished 1400 A.D., were lofty structures, crowning a height or isolated in a lake, lifting battlemented towers high above their surroundings. Before the introduction of breech-loading guns there were but four methods of attack: by escalade, i.e.,

climbing, as with ladders, by forcing or sur prising gateways, by mining underneath the walls, so as to throw them down, and by batods of breaching the wall above ground. tering rams, the pickax, or other such meth

Missile weapons were secondary in importance. Arrows and bolts were used to drive the defenders from the walls at the moment of

assault, and to repel the assailants, and heavy stones and darts as large as iron-shod rafters were used to destroy battlements and wooden defenses of all sorts; burning missiles were used also to set fire to the stockades, palisades, and wooden galleries. The largest pierrières (stone-throwing engines) of the Middle Ages could throw a 300-pound stone perhaps 600 ft.; but not many of these in an hour, and with no exact aim; moreover, such a machine contained an enormous amount of solid timber, occupied a space of perhaps 800 sq. ft., and took many days to set up and adjust. The assailants had to crowd close under the walls to scale or to breach them, and the defense consisted of a steady shower of darts, arrows, stones, and unslaked lime, with burnscaling towers of the attacking party. Of the fortresses of the Middle Ages many remain in excellent condition; several in Syria, built by the crusaders, being almost intact; the great inclosed place at Villeneuve, opposite Avignon, retaining all its defensibility except for a breach or two in the walls; and the tower of Philip the Fair near by, and the walls of the city of Avignon itself, having needed and received but slight repairs. In the U. S. Fort Monroe was designed to be a fortress in the European sense.

Fort Pick'ens, inclosed casemated and bastioned pentagonal brickwork, on Santa Rosa Island, Pensacola harbor, Fla., which harbor and the U. S. navy yard it defends. In January, 1861, Maj. Adam Slemmer abandoned the small work, Fort Barrancas, opposite, and transferred his command to Fort Pickens, which he held until reënforced.

Fort Pil'low, a fort built in 1862 by Confederates under Gen. Pillow, in Tennessee, on the E. shore of the Mississippi, about 40 m. N. of Memphis. After the battle of Shiloh (April, 1862) the flanking movement of Grant's army up the Tennessee forced the Confederates out of this stronghold; in consequence, the Union gunboat flotilla was enabled to run down to Memphis, where it destroyed nine Confederate gunboats, and then the city capitulated (June