however, in his attacks, the cortes, in the year 1385, elected Don John, by whom the country was soon cleared of invaders.

THE CHURCH.

GREAT SCHISM.-Boniface VIII., who succeeded to the tiara in 1294, was the last of the great popes, the heirs, so to speak, of Gregory VII. He proposed to complete the mighty work of his predecessors by subjecting all the kings of the earth to the pontifical authority; but at the end of the thirteenth century the condition of the world had greatly changed, for society was beginning to emerge from feudal anarchy, under the shield of a power capable of maintaining public peace. Even in the darkness and confusion of the ninth century, the papacy had failed in its enterprises. It was therefore to no purpose that, at the beginning of the fourteenth, Boniface, in the council held at Rome, 1302, composed the famous decretal Unam Sanctam, which asserts that the temporal power is inferior to the spiritual, and that the pope has the right of appointing, correcting, and deposing sovereigns. Philip the Fair, against whom this was manifestly aimed, replied by accusing the pontiff of heresy, simony, and other crimes,- -a charge which is said to have caused the death of his holiness. The dispute, however, was amicably settled by his successor in 1303. The residence of the supreme pontiff was now transferred from Italy to France; and Clement V. made Avignon the capital of the papacy. Babylonish captivity," as it was derisively called, lasted seventy-two years. On the decease of Gregory XI., in 1378, two popes were elected: Urban VI. was acknowledged by the greater part of the empire, also by Bohemia, Hungary, and England; Clement VII. was recognised as legitimate in France, Spain, and Scotland. The former resided at Rome, the latter at Avignon. This great schism of the West lasted fifty-one years: it was extinguished by the abdication of Clement VIII. in 1429.

This "

1410. John XXIII. (Three popes instead of two).

This dispute was terminated by the council of Constance, in 1414, which deposed the three popes, Gregory, John, and Benedict, and conferred the papacy on

1417. Martin V.

1424. Clement VIII. (antipope).

About 1360, WICKLIFFE began to expose the corruption of the clergy, which paved the way for the Reformation in England. Twenty years afterwards, he made known to the people the records of divine truth, by the first English translation of the Bible. It was now that more forcibly than ever he raised his powerful voice against the doctrine of transubstantiation; and above all, he boldly declared that the sacred Scriptures alone are the sole foundation of our belief. His followers, by way of reproach, were termed "Lollards."

THE FLAGELLANTS.-This sect, which appeared during the great pestilence of 1348, imagined that scourging was the only means of procuring a remission of the divine punishment. It originated in Hungary, and gradually spread over the central parts of Europe: it was excluded from France, but reached England in 1349.

THE BIANCHI.-In the summer of 1399, a sect of fanatics suddenly arose in Italy called Bianchi, from the long white garments they wore. Their faces were covered with a veil that they might not be known. They walked in procession from town to town, following a large crucifix, and chanting that beautiful hymn of the Romish church, "Stabat mater dolorosa." They restricted themselves to bread and water. A remarkable although transient reformation of manners has been ascribed to their influence. They were opposed by the pope, and strictly prohibited both in France and England. The founders of this sect are said to have come from Britain; and their description corresponds to a certain extent with that of the itinerant priests in 1382.

INVENTIONS, &c.

THE MARINER'S COMPASS.-In this century many new inventions, by seconding the exertions of genius, accelerated the progress of knowledge and civilisation. The chief of these were the construction of the mariner's compass, and the manufacture of linen paper. The Chinese were acquainted with the polarity of the magnetic needle so early as 1121; and they assign the invention of the compass to 1108 B. C. This instrument was probably introduced into Europe by the Saracens; but only came into general use at the end of this century. The pretensions of Flavio Gioia of Amalfi have been long detected; indeed it is doubtful if such a person ever existed. A more fearless spirit of maritime adventure soon arose, and its fruits in the next century were the discovery of a NEW WORLD.

LINEN PAPER. The revival of learning in the fourteenth century called for cheaper materials than the parchment in general use. Paper made from cotton appears to have been known as early as 1100. The Arabians assert that cotton paper had been manufactured at Samarcand in the eighth century, the method having been introduced from China. Though linen paper was very little known till the latter part of the fourteenth century, it is an unreasonable scepticism to doubt its use in the West in the middle of the thirteenth. Pace da Fabiano of Treviso is said to have been its inventor; but subsequent researches place him in the same rank of fabulous persons, as Flavio Gioia and the monk Schwartz.

* A word of doubtful origin: probably from Walter Lollard, a German, 1315; or from Lullards or Lollards, the praisers of God, a sect thus named in Brabant,

1309.

FIFTEENTH CENTURY.

GREEK EMPIRE AND THE EAST.-1402, Invasion of Tamerlane-Mohammed I.-1425, John Palæologus-Huniades and Scanderbeg.1448, Constantine Palæologus.--1451, Mohammed II.-1453, Constantinople taken by the Turks.-1480, Siege of Rhodes-Bajazet II. GERMANY.—1400, Robert.-1410, Sigismond.-1414, Council of Constance-Hussite War.-1436, Peace of Iglau.—1438, Austrian House.— 1464, Ernestine and Albertine Houses.-1479, Victory at Guinegate.1493, Maximilian I.-1495, Diet of Worms: Imperial Chamber.— 1500, Six Circles.

FRANCE.-1407, Civil War: Burgundians and Armagnacs.-1415, Defeat at Agincourt.-1420, Treaty of Troyes.-1422, Charles VII.-1423, Defeat at Verneuil.-1429, Joan of Arc.-1461, Louis XI.-1477, Charles of Burgundy killed at Nancy.-1479, Swiss League.-1483, Charles VIII. 1495, Naples conquered-Victory of Fornovo.

BRITAIN.-1401, Sawtree burnt for Heresy.-1413, Henry V.-1415, AGINCOURT.-1422, Henry VI.-Bedford, Regent-1444, Truce of Tours-Jack Cade.-WARS OF THE ROSES: 1455, Battle of St Albans: 1460, of Wakefield Green.-1461, HOUSE OF YORK: Edward IV. 1471, Battle of Barnett; 1483, of Tewkesbury-Jane ShoreEdward V.-Richard III.-1485, TUDORS: Henry VII.-1487, Simnel, and Perkin Warbeck.

ITALIAN PENINSULA.-1400, John de Medici.-1434, Cosmo I.—1435, Alphonso V. of Naples. -1460, Defeat at Sarno.-1466, Galeazzo Sforza. -1469, Lorenzo de Medici.-1485, Revolt of Nobles.

SPANISH PENINSULA.-1406, John II. of Castile-Alvarez de Luna— Power of Grandmaster of the Three Orders.-1409, Martin V. of Aragon and Sicily.-1419, John II. of Navarre.-1452, Don Carlos defeated at Aibar.-Roussillon and Cerdagne sold to France.—1454, Henry IV.— Invasion of Granada.-1465, Deposition of Henry.-1474, ISABELLA.— 1479, Union of Castile and Aragon.-1480, Inquisition.-1492, Conquest of Granada.

CHURCH.-1409, Hussites.-1414, Sixteenth General Council, Constance. -1429, End of Schism of the West.-1439, Council of Florence.-1454, St Francis de Paulo founds the Order of Minims.

INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES.-1440, Carriages.-1449, Felt Hats -Painting in Oil.-1461, Engraving on Copper-First Silk Manufacture.-1450, Printing.-1474, First Lithotomic Operation.-1495, Algebra.-1486, Cape of Good Hope.-1492, America discovered.

LITERATURE AND ART.-Poggio, L. Valla, Pulci, Politian, Pico Mirandola, Manutius Aldus, Ital.-Budæus, Fr.-Villena, J. de Mena, Sp.-Lydgate, Fortescue, Littleton, Caxton, Eng.-Thomas à Kempis, Reuchlin, Germ.

GREEK EMPIRE.

FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE.-The destruction of the Greek empire was for a time delayed by the invasions of Tamerlane, so that MANUEL, who had visited the west of Europe in the hope of obtaining succours from the Latin powers, returned to his capital, where he reigned many years in prosperity and peace. In 1425, the crown descended to JOHN PALEOLOGUS II., who, with a design of healing the schism between the Eastern and Western churches, attended the council of Ferrara, 1438. Had this visit failed in its object, still the revival of Greek literature in Italy by the learned men in the emperor's train would have been ample compensation. On his decease, in 1448, the throne was occupied for the last time by one of its native Sovereigns, CONSTANTINE PALEOLOGUS. He was soon attacked by the young and ambitious Mohammed II., who laid siege to his capital in the spring of 1453. The emperor, having implored in vain the assistance of the Latin princes of Europe, was left with only about 8000 men to contend against a victorious rival at the head of 260,000. Fourteen batteries, mounting guns of enormous calibre, poured their destructive fire, night and day, against the ancient walls. The various operations of the siege were conducted with the greatest impetuosity on both sides; while the failing spirits of the garrison and citizens were revived by the timely arrival of five heavily laden ships of war, that had broken through the line of the enemy's fleet, and caused a loss of 12,000 men. Although this was the only attempt made to succour Constantinople, it so discouraged the sultan, that he was about to withdraw his troops, when the devoted city was entirely surrounded by transporting some of the lighter Ottoman vessels over a narrow isthmus into the inner part of the harbour. The terms of capitulation which Mohammed now offered were such as the religion of Constantine forbade him to accept. Preparations were accordingly made for a fierce struggle, and while the Greeks dedicated the whole night of 28th May to prayer, the besieging camp was already filled with the shouts of victory. At daybreak, the city was violently attacked on all sides; the valour of the Christians long rendered the event doubtful, and the fortune of that day might have been different, but for the retreat of Justiniani, the Genoese commander, and his auxiliaries. A gigantic janizary, named Hassan, was the first to climb the shattered rampart, and though precipitated into the ditch, he had shown the practicability of

the enterprise. Palæologus fell by an unknown hand, resisting to the last; and with him the fate of his capital was decided, after a siege of fifty-three days, 29th May 1453. Constantinople was sacked, and its inhabitants became the prey of the victors. In the destruction of the libraries posterity has to regret the loss of 120,000 manuscripts.

The dissolution of the Greek empire now proceeded step by step. "Every province was in turn subdued; the limbs were lopped off one by one; and the majesty of the Roman name was ultimately confined to the walls of Constantinople. Before Mohammed II. planted his cannon against them, he had deprived the expiring empire of every hope of succour or delay. It was necessary that Constantinople should fall; but the magnanimous resignation of her emperor bestows an honour upon her fall, which her prosperity seldom earned. The long deferred but inevitable moment arrived, and the last of the Cæsars folded round him the imperial mantle, and remembered the name which he represented in the dignity of heroic death." -Hallam's Middle Ages.

OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND TURKEY.

INVASION OF TAMERLANE.—In 1402, Tamerlane invaded the Ottoman empire, after provoking Bajazet by menacing letters, in which he was compared to an insect. The sultan was at this time besieging Constantinople, when hastily breaking up his camp before that city, he marched against the Mongols, who were attacking Angora, in Asia Minor. Here, on the 28th July, he gave battle on the ground where Pompey defeated the army of Mithridates. The combat was prolonged during three days and two nights, and 140,000 men were left dead on that terrible field of slaughter. The Turks were completely routed, and Bajazet fell into the hands of the conqueror, by whom (according to the western historians, whose testimony, however, is not confirmed by the Persians) he was carried about enclosed in an iron cage until his death. Fortunately for Europe, the want of ships checked the progress of Tamerlane on the shores of the Hellespont and Bosporus. The victor now returned to Samarcand, whence his ambition, which the snows of seventy winters had not cooled, hurried him to China, hoping to add that country to his acquisitions; but he did not live to realize his project, having died at Otrar, 1st April 1405. The fate of his kingdom was similar to that of Alexander, whose place it nearly occupied. From a portion of this immense dominion his descendant Baber, in the next century, formed the empire of the Great Mogul in India.

The invasion now described, and dissensions among the sons