reign, the fire being in the middle of the house against a hob of clay, and the oxen lived under the same roof with the family. Neither in France nor in England was window-glass introduced before the fourteenth century, and during the middle ages glazed windows appear to have been an article of moveable furniture. Beds were extremely rare; the walls of the rooms were naked; there were no libraries or pictures; silver cups and spoons were almost the only articles of plate. Chairs and looking-glasses were scarcely known; window-shutters and curtains were great luxuries even in 1539.

The condition of agriculture in England had been gradually improving since the Norman conquest. During the long reign of the Plantagenets, woods were cleared, marshes drained, and parochial enclosures made, so that, under Edward III., there was a great extent of land cultivated; the northern and western parts, however, being the most backward. The culture of the arable soil was very imperfect, nine or ten bushels of wheat being a fair average crop to an acre. Such land was rented at about sixpence an acre, though meadow-ground was double or triple that sum. To augment their revenues, the landlords procured a repeal of the act forbidding the exportation of corn, 15th Henry VI., so long as wheat did not exceed 6s. 8d. a-quarter, and barley 3s. Under Edward IV. the usual price of land was ten years' purchase. But to form precise notions on this subject, we must be acquainted with the relative value of money. Before the debasement of the coin in 1301, the ordinary price of a quarter of wheat was about 4s., that of barley and oats being in proportion. A sheep was dear at one shilling, and an ox at ten or twelve. By a comparative table of English money, drawn up by Sir F. Eden, it appears that the value of a pound sterling of our present coinage was worth at the Conquest £2, 18s. 1d., whence it gradually decreased until it reached 4s. 7d. in 1551; but the next year it rose to £1, 0s. 63d. With few variations, until the 43d of Elizabeth, it continued as at present. Sir John Fortescue speaks of £5 a-year as "a fair living for a yeoman;" in 1514, the expense of a scholar at the university was but £5 a-year, or about £60 of our money; and earlier, in 1476, we find four pence (our five shillings) given as a fee to a barrister for his dinner. Here we must consider the change in manners and the usual mode of living. Little wine was drunk; there were no foreign luxuries; male servants were kept chiefly for husbandry; landed estates were nearly exempt from taxation. The condition of the labouring classes, in the reign of Edward III. or Henry VI., was better than at present. In the fourteenth century a harvestman had fourpence a-day, thus enabling him in a week to buy a coom of wheat, which, at the average of the last twenty years, would now cost about 28s. In 1350, reapers' wages were fixed by law at threepence a-day, without food, equal to 5s. at present; in 1424, at fivepence, equal to 6s. 8d.; those of ordinary workmen being somewhat less. In 1444, a head-shepherd had £1, 4s. a-year, equivalent to about £20, and in their ordinary diet labourers used a good deal of animal food.

and

Consult: Hallam, Middle Ages, ch. ix. pp. 1, 2; and Millar's Lectures on the Philosophy of History, vol. iv. lect. 38-40.

END OF PART II.-MIDDLE AGES.

ELEMENTS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

PART THIRD.

MODERN HISTORY.

FROM THE ERA OF THE REFORMATION, AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.

THE great historical and political events which characterize this last period of Universal History were brought about by many concurrent circumstances, sufficiently united in respect of date to form a marked difference between the middle ages and the events of modern times. The introduction of the mariner's compass was followed, though at a long interval, by the discovery of America and by the circumnavigation of Africa; while the invention of printing prepared the way for the intellectual and religious changes effected by Luther in the sixteenth century.

In considering the actual state of Europe, we must not forget the influence of race and language. The nations of the South, with their Roman habits and dialects, were in almost constant opposition to those of the North, whose language and manners were of Germanic origin. In the West, civilisation was rapidly developed, and carried to the most distant countries, whereas in the East, the people, chiefly of Sclavonic lineage, were too much engaged in opposing the barbarians to make any great progress in the arts of peace. Similar causes will also account for the backwardness of the Scandinavian tribes, who were so far removed from the influence of refinement.

In all the nations of Gothic descent, which alone were strictly under the feudal law, a powerful middle class arose by degrees, and supported the kings against the barons. But the struggle was long and severe ere the people triumphed. In the middle of the fifteenth century, feudalism was dominant in the Empire; it had humbled the Castilian monarchs, and preserved its supremacy in Portugal, England, and Naples; in Scotland it was attacked by the sovereigns; while in France, Charles

T

VIIL, successful in recovering those provinces conquered by the English, paved the way for its abolition; and, before the end of the century, Ferdinand of Spain, Henry VII. of England, and Louis XI. of France, had established the royal power on its ruins. Sweden, which had been united to Denmark during sixty years, broke the union of Calmar; Russia emancipated herself from the Tartar yoke; and the Teutonic order of knights became the vassals of Poland. During the time the emperor was busied in founding the greatness of his house, and Germany in repairing the evils inflicted by her political and religious wars, all the Eastern states were menaced by the Turks, whom the Hungarians at length arrested in their victorious career. By the middle of the sixteenth century, the Reformed doctrines were already spread throughout Europe, particularly in France, England, Scotland, and the Low Countries. Spain alone remained closed against them, and became their most determined adversary.

The Eastern and Northern states did not long remain strangers to the European republics. During the rivalry of Francis I. and Charles V., Turkey was identified with the European system; and at the beginning of the seventeenth century, Sweden interfered in a resolute manner in the affairs of her southern neighbours. It was now that France assumed a high position ; and Louis XIV. dictated to Europe so long as his antagonists were composed of the divided Empire, Holland, and Spain, then almost ruined; but his influence and power were eclipsed so soon as William III., in 1688, ascended the British throne, and was enabled to wield the extensive resources of his new kingdom. In concert with Holland, the English destroyed the pretensions of France to the dominion of the sea, and, in union with Austria, confined her within her proper limits, though they could not prevent the establishment of a Bourbon on the Spanish throne. Sweden was the principal northern power: twice she effected considerable conquests, but was too feeble to maintain a lasting supremacy. Her career, too, was checked by Russia, which eventually attained the superiority she has ever since preserved.

The beginning of the eighteenth century was marked by the formation of the kingdoms of Prussia and Sardinia. The colonial wars, one of the characteristics of this period, furnished England with an opportunity of destroying the navies of France and Spain, and of asserting her power over the neutral states. The revolution of her American dependencies threatened her

influence, and terminated in the loss of these important settlements; but, presenting a determined front to her enemies, she founded in the East an empire of vast wealth and extent.

At the close of the eighteenth century, war raged throughout the greater part of Europe; and the very foundations of society were shaken by the most terrible revolution on record. The political whirlwind spread from France over Europe, leaving in all directions the deepest marks of its progress. But as storms and tempests serve to purify the atmosphere, so good has, in the political world, sprung out of what appeared to be unmingled evil. Constitutional monarchies are every where established, or the way is rapidly preparing for them; and the influence of the middle class is more directly felt in the governments both of England and France.

SIXTEENTH CENTURY.

BRITAIN AND IRELAND.-1509, Henry VIII.-1513, Battle of Flodden; James V.-1514, Wolsey.-1527, Anne Boleyn.-1536, First Suppression of Monasteries.- 1542, Mary, Queen of Scotland.-1547, Edward VI. 1553, Mary.-1558, Elizabeth.-1587, Queen of Scotland beheaded. -1588, Spanish Armada defeated.-1598, Irish Revolt. FRANCE.-1508, League of Cambray against Venice.-1512, Battle of Ravenna.-1515, Francis I.-1520, Field of Cloth of Gold.-1544, Battle of Cerrisoles; Boulogne taken by the English.-1545, Massacre of the Vandois.-1558, Calais recovered.-1560, Charles IX.-1572, Massacre of St Bartholomew.-1574, Henry III.-1588, States of Blois.1589, Henry IV.-1598, Edict of Nantes.

ITALIAN PENINSULA.-1501, Naples conquered by the French.-1503, Battle of Cerignola; 1525, of Pavia.-1537, Cosmo de Medici.-1547, Fieschi's Conspiracy.-1580, Charles Emanuel of Savoy.-1585, Pope Sixtus V.

SPANISH PENINSULA.-1500, Charles V. born; Ximenes.-1539, Last Castilian Cortes.-1555, Philip II.—1557, Sebastian of Portugal.—1578, Henry I. of Portugal.—1596, Cadiz taken by the English.

UNITED PROVINCES.-1568, Death of Counts Egmont and Horn.1579, Union of Utrecht.-1584, Prince of Orange murdered.-1597, Victory of Turnhout.

GERMANY.-1501, Aulic Council.-1517, Luther.-1519, Charles V. Emperor.-1530, Diet of Augsburg.—1535, Anabaptist War.-1545, Council of Trent.-1552, Treaty of Passau.-1556, Ferdinand I.; 1564, Maximilian II.; 1576, Rudolph II.

HUNGARY AND BOHEMIA.-1490, Ladislaus.-1516, Louis II.-1526, Battle of Mohacz; John Zapoli and Ferdinand.-1541, John Sigismund. -1548, Hereditary Succession of Bohemia.-1566, Turkish Invasion. POLAND AND RUSSIA.-1506, Sigismund I. king of Poland.-1519, Polish War against Teutonic Order.-1533, Ivan IV.-1550, New Code.1573, Henry of Valois.-1581, Conquest of Siberia.-1598, End of Rurik Dynasty. DENMARK, SWEDEN, AND NORWAY.-1448, Christian II., 1523, Gustavus Vasa.-1534, Christian III.—1560, Erik of Sweden.-1592, Sigismund of Poland.

THE EAST.-1501, Ismael Sophi, King of Persia-1512, Selim I.-1515, Mogul Empire in East Indies.-1521, Belgrade taken.-1522, Siege of Rhodes.-1548, War with Persia.-1553, Roxalana.-1571, Battle of Lepanto.-1574, Amurath III.-1585, Shah Abbas.

COLONIES.-1500, Brazil discovered.-1503, Portuguese first established in India.-1508, West Indies.-1513, Discovery of the South Sea.1526, Pizarro in Peru.-1584, Virginia, the First English Colony.— 1586, Davis' Straits.

THE CHURCH.-1517, Luther.-1525, Capuchin Order.-1530, Confession of Augsburg.-1533, Calvinists.-1534, English Reformation.-1540, Jesuits.-1545, Council of Trent.-1546, Socinians.-1552, St Francis Xavier.-1568, Bull in Caná Domini.-1572, Massacre of St Bartholomew.-1580, Chinese Mission.

INVENTIONS, &c.-1517, Gun-locks.-1538, Lotteries.-1548, Balance Wheel.-1582, Reformed Calendar; Oil-Painting.-1593, Telescope and Thermometer.

BRITAIN.

ENGLAND.-In 1501 and 1502 were concluded two marriages which led to important results in after-times. Arthur, prince of Wales, son of Henry VII., having espoused Catherine of Aragon, fourth daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and dying six months afterwards, his brother, afterwards Henry VIII., accepted the hand of the widow; while Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry VII., married James IV. of Scotland, thereby transmitting rights to her descendants which at length placed the Stuart family on the English throne.

HENRY VIII. Succeeded his father in the year 1509, at the age of eighteen. His accession to the throne excited transports of joy in the nation, which had been dissatisfied with the parsimonious habits of his predecessor. The treasures amassed by the latter furnished the young king with immense resources; the chief potentates of the Continent sought his alliance; the treaties with France were made perpetual; and nothing was