emphatic terms used at the time, that this new contest should end either "in an honourable peace or a glorious destruction." The newly armed levies, or landsturm, as they were called, filled with patriotic enthusiasm, defeated at the point of the bayonet 30,000 French under Eugene Beauharnais, at Möckern. The battles of Lutzen and Bautzen led to an armistice on the 4th of June, during which a foul attempt was made by Arrighi, a countryman of Napoleon's, to cut off Lutzow's free corps near Leipsic, where Körner, the patriotic poet, was severely wounded. On the resumption of hostilities, August 17, the Prussian arms attained a series of brilliant successes. The renowned Blucher, whom his soldiers afterwards styled Marshal Forwards, defeated Macdonald on the Katzbach, and drove him from Silesia; Vandamme was taken prisoner, and his army annihilated near Culm; and Ney, to whom the crown of Prussia had been promised, was totally defeated at Dennevitz, September 6, and pursued to the Elbe. These triumphs, together with the storming of General Bertrand's fortified camp by Blucher, October 3, enabled the allies to unite before Leipsic, and to contend for three days against the emperor in person (16th, 18th, and 19th October),

who never recovered from the terrible blow here inflicted on him. France was now in her turn condemned to be trodden down by invading armies, and the war was prosecuted with varying but hardly doubtful success. Napoleon's forces were indeed increased, and from acting on an internal line, were easily concentrated in overwhelming numbers on any point. The valour of Blucher, however, at the battle of Laon, 9th March 1814, decided the campaign, and Paris was soon after entered by the allies. Much of this success must be attributed to the patriotic exertions of Baron Stein, prime-minister in 1808, and to a secret patriotic association formed at that time, called the Tugenbund (or bond of virtue), which led to the formation of voluntary corps, as well as to the promise of political institutions in accordance with the spirit of the age.

By the congress of Vienna, 1814, Prussia recovered what she had resigned at Tilsit, and in exchange for sacrifices in Poland, received half of Saxony, and a considerable accession of provinces on the left bank of the Rhine.

RUSSIA.

The odious tyranny of the Emperor Paul, which seemed to verge on insanity, became at length insupportable to his sub

jects; and in March 1801, he met with the fate of many other despotic princes, being murdered in his palace by a band of conspirators. ALEXANDER I., his son and successor, began his reign by various judicious and patriotic measures; while, by agreeing to an amicable convention, he put a stop to the impending hostilities with England, consequent on his predecessor's scheme of armed neutrality. The peace of Amiens, 1802, was the almost immediate consequence; but the young monarch refused to acknowledge the title of the French emperor, and, joining the Austrian coalition against him, was present in person at the great defeat of Austerlitz. In 1806, he endeavoured to continue the war in alliance with Prussia; but the rapid overthrow of that power, and the severe losses of his own troops at Eylau and Friedland, led to an armistice in June 1807, during which the two emperors met personally on a raft placed in the middle of the Niemen. The result of this interview was an apparently warm friendship between Alexander and Napoleon, and the celebrated treaty of Tilsit, July 7, by which the former joined the continental system, and soon after declared war against England and Sweden, the latter of which countries was forced to cede, in 1809, all Finland, East Bothnia, and Aaland.

Three years previously to this period, an alliance between Turkey and France had been used as a pretext for declaring war with the former state; but the hostilities were languidly conducted till 1809, when they were resumed with fresh vigour. The Russians easily passed the fortified line of the Danube; but the Turks, being strongly encamped at Shumla in Bulgaria, were assailed without success, and the grand-vizier routed one-half of the invaders, 1810. These last were then driven back across the Danube, when the vizier having imprudently crossed in pursuit, was surprised and defeated by Kutusoff, he himself escaping with difficulty. Peace was soon after concluded at Bucharest, through the mediation of England, when Turkey relinquished all claims on the left bank of the Pruth, 1812.

Meanwhile, the effects of the continental system had become conspicuous in the ruin of the national commerce, and excited a universal feeling of discontent throughout Russia. At the end of 1811, a dispute arose with the court of Paris in consequence of the seizure of the territories of the Duke of Oldenburg by Napoleon; and it speedily became evident that a rupture was impending. Accordingly, on the 19th March 1812, having

The

previously formed an alliance with Sweden, Alexander declared war against the French emperor, who on his part announced his intention to drive back the Russian monarchy to Asia. tremendous contest that followed, so important for the independence of Europe, has already been detailed under FRANCE. The steady valour and heroic sacrifices of the Russian people saved their country and preserved the liberties of mankind; and an unprincipled and insatiable ambition received its most awful lesson amid the horrors which attended the retreat from Moscow. After this period Russia experienced an almost uninterrupted triumph, till, on the 31st March 1814, her victorious troops, in conjunction with those of the other allies, took possession of the French capital. Her sovereign obtained a considerable share of the fruits of these signal successes. By the congress of Vienna, in 1815, the city of Warsaw, with a large adjacent territory, was erected into the kingdom of Poland, and annexed to his empire; several provinces bordering on Persia had previously (1813) been ceded to him by the peace of Goolistan; whilst the important acquisition of Finland, obtained from Sweden in 1809, proved a source of great benefit and security to his northern dominions. The remainder of his reign was passed in various useful measures of internal improvement.

TURKEY.

The unprovoked invasion of Egypt by the French, and their subsequent successes, compelled Sultan Selim to form a defensive alliance with Russia and England in 1798, and the great exertions of the latter power at length restored that important province to the dominions of the Porte. Meanwhile, the introduction of modern tactics into the army, and the favour shown to the new corps disciplined after this manner, which were known by the designation of the Nizam Djedit, had excited the deadly hostility of the janissaries, who foresaw in the advancement of this body a presage of their own downfal. In the midst of these discontents, the intrigues of France so far prevailed in the Ottoman councils as to precipitate a war with their late allies, England and Russia, 1806. The latter power immediately occupied the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia; while an English fleet, under Admiral Duckworth, passed the Dardanelles and approached the capital, but was speedily compelled to retreat. A strong force being now sent under the vizier to the Russian

frontiers, the janissaries seized the opportunity to give vent to their long-cherished resentment, and with loud cries demanded the deposition of the sultan. MUSTAPHA IV., his nephew, was accordingly raised to the throne, the whole authority, at the same time, passing into the hands of the leaders of the insurrection, who conducted themselves with the utmost insolence. This state of things, however, was speedily put an end to by Bairactar, pasha of Rustchuk, who hastened to the capital at the head of 40,000 Albanians; and though too late to prevent the assassination of his former master Selim, whom he desired to reinstate, he pulled the usurper from the throne, to which he immediately elevated MAHMOUD II. By way of avenging the death of the late sultan, the usual barbarous executions, or rather massacres, now took place; but the janissaries still retained so much influence as to procure, some time after, the death of Bairactar himself. In 1812, the war with Russia was brought to a close by the peace of Bucharest; and the sultan, now at liberty to devote himself to the internal affairs of his empire, began to display those qualities of energy, courage, and political talent, which marked him as one of the ablest potentates of his time. He resolutely prepared to reduce his rebellious viceroys in the provinces, abolished the hereditary pashaliks, and at length entirely suppressed the insolent janissaries, who had so long held the capital in thraldom. The reduction of the Wahabees in Arabia was intrusted to Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt, who had some time before made himself absolute master of that important province by a barbarous massacre of the Mamelukes; and after two years of dangerous warfare, his son Ibrahim entirely subdued the enthusiastic sectarians, and took their chief prisoner. In 1820, a struggle arose in the Morea, which, after ten years of warfare, terminated in the independence of Greece,—in the first instance as a republic under the presidency of Count Capodistria, and eventually, in 1833, as a limited monarchy under Prince Otho of Bavaria.

BRITISH INDIA.

The progress of the British power in Hindostan during the preceding century, so marvellous in every point of view, is particularly striking from the fact that it took place against the direct wishes of the government at home; and that almost every successive war and negotiation terminated, as it seemed inevitably, in that very extension of territory which had been

so anxiously deprecated. Hardly, therefore, had the conquest of Mysore freed the Company from a powerful enemy, and promised an opportunity of peacefully pursuing those commercial objects which were always deemed paramount in importance, than another career of conquest was opened up This event arose from the jealousy of their late allies, the Mahrattas, now the most formidable native power in Hindostan, both on account of the personal qualities of the chiefs who ruled the confederacy, and from having French officers employed in their armies. Scindia, one of these princes, had pushed his conquests so successfully in the north, as to obtain possession of the provinces of Delhi and Agra; and eventually, by the reduction of the city of the former name in 1788, the person of the Mogul himself fell into his hands, the conquered territories being placed under the government of General Perron, a French officer in his service. The powerful chief, having taken offence at a treaty formed by the British with the Peishwa of Poonah, declared war against them in 1803, in which he was joined by the Rajah of Berar. General Lake immediately took the field in the north, where he was opposed by Perron; but having soon after captured the important fort of Allighur, he succeeded in inducing that officer to quit the service of Scindia, rapidly overran the northern provinces, and took possession of Delhi and of the person of the Mogul. In the south, where the operations were conducted by Major-general Wellesley (afterwards Duke of Wellington), the success was if possible still more decisive. At the great battle of Assaye, fought on the 23d September, with a force of 5000 men, he totally defeated 60,000 under Scindia and the rajah in person, gaining one of the most complete victories recorded even in the annals of Indian warfare. A peace was the immediate consequence, by which the victors obtained extensive territories in central Hindostan, including Delhi and Agra, with the custody of the Mogul emperor, who henceforth subsisted on a British pension till his death in 1807.

This treaty was scarcely concluded, ere a new contest broke out with Holkar, another powerful Mahratta sovereign, 1804. He made a rapid incursion into the Doab, and attempted to seize Delhi by stratagem, but was gallantly repulsed; his infantry were defeated by Major-general Fraser at Dieg, while Lord Lake, having pursued the cavalry to Furruckabad, took them by surprise, and routed them with great slaughter.