6 tion; and this because they are more impa- | is very much of a professor's book. Better tient at error than anxious for truth. than Bode's Geschichte der dramatischen The speculations on the subject of the Dichtkunst der Hellenen,' but many degrees drama, with reference to its history and below Gruppe's Ariadne.' In the Hispresent condition, have been all impressed tory of Greek Tragedy,' which he prefixes with the above characteristic. The deplor- to his considerations of the three great poable condition into which this art has now ets, he takes a rapid glance at the attempted fallen, not only in our own country, but in revivals of the Greek drama by moderns. all Europe, has occupied much attention. This being, as it were, beyond the real proThe drama, which in its high and palmy vince of his studies, is very feebly treated days' numbered the greatest poets amongst by him. Still the very attempt opens curiits professors, and was the highest expres-ous tracks of inquiry; one of which is the sion of the nation's art, is now in the last comparative history of the drama, and on lingerings of decay. A blight has fallen on this track we propose to conduct our readit. Sterility, only varied by feeble abortions, ers, confident that some certain results may is the universal complaint. The stage may be obtained which will better enable us to exhibit more vigour in one country than in answer the question respecting the revival another, but nowhere does the drama give of the drama. At the outset it will be advisable to state any signs of life. It is very natural that many persons should regard this depression that we shall uniformly regard the drama as of an art, once so exalted, once so fondly a form of poetry occupying a distinctive cherished, as a serious misfortune: hence place in the national literature, 'expressing the anxiety about reviving it' and the the generalized reflection of the epoch on many plans proposed. Facile theories, human life.' We have nothing to do here angry discussions, presumptuous hopes, and with the stage. We put aside the ordinary practical failures, have hitherto occupied subjects of dispute, to confine ourselves those most interested in getting the problem solely to the dramatic art. Too much stress solved. Let us, therefore, now endeavour has been laid on the stage and its dependto do that which should have been done at ants. Whatever influence it may exert, the first; let us ask the question, Can the literary historian is not bound to consider it drama be revived at all? Is the present as essential to his subject; no more than depression temporary, or is it inevitable booksellers are essential to poetry, although decay?' If this is capable of theoretical they also exert some influence on the conanswer, that answer must be sought in the dition of literature. history of the drama. The drama has no existence in Europe at the present time. In other words, it has ceased to be the form in which the national poetry, or at least the greater portion of it, The ancient drama is is represented. drama. The work of Professor Patin placed at the head of this article will afford us an opportunity of taking a bird's-eye view of this great subject. But first let us discharge our critical office of introducing the work, studied with avidity; there is no modern which, on the whole, is excellent. It comIf editions, commentaries, and prises a cursory and somewhat confused, criticisms, were signs of vitality, we might though erudite, survey of the history of say that at no former time did the drama Greek Tragedy,* and analysis of all the flourish more vigorously. Unfortunately, plays of the three tragedians, with illustra- as Mr. Carlyle says, it is an infallible sign tions derived from modern imitations. Pro- that religion is at a low ebb when men are fessor Patin is extremely well read; and profuse in building churches to embalm it takes advantage of all that the erudite Ger-in; so is the drama feeble when so much mans have been able to drag into light: so labour is bestowed on that which is past. that with French clearness and German Whatever may be done towards a thorough research, the work cannot fail to be both interesting and useful. Anything novel in criticism must not be looked for in this work. There is no peculiar stamp of an individual mind to distinguish it from the works of other savants; but it has good sense, the views upon debateable points are moderate and well expressed; in short, it * His account of the Grecian actors, though full, is not to be compared with that given by Mr. St. John in his 'Hellenes,' vol. 2, pp. 232-244. intelligence of the ancient drama, very little is done towards the creation of the modern. Men write plays; men, too, of great ability, of dramatic ability; but these plays are essentially the works of individuals (to say nothing of their being imitations of ancient models), and do not constitute a drama. Perhaps all young poets, in our country at least (fascinated by Shakspeare), have written plays: but they have not given the exclusive devotion of their lives to the culture of this art; they have not made it occupy that position in the national mind which it which celebrated the triumph of the god, occupied in the great dramatic eras of Peri- were transformed by gradual changes into cles, Elizabeth, Louis XIV., and Philip. the drama which represented a great porAmongst the band of poets which made the tion of the national mythology and legendabeginning of this age illustrious, some few ry lore. In a similar way the Miracle-plays wrote a play or two; but he is a bold man of modern Europe, which were purely reliwho would pronounce Wordsworth, Cole-gious festivals, became gradually transformridge, and Byron, dramatists, or assert that ed into the drama. But as the dithyramb their plays, added to the innumerable plays did not throughout Greece become a Trageof other writers, form a national drama. All dy; so also the Miracle-play did not in every the great dramatists have devoted their lives European country produce a national drama. to their peculiar office, and have scarcely England, Spain, and France, can alone be written anything but dramas; modern wri- said to have succeeded in this; the reason ters attempt plays by way of imitation or of we shall presently bring forward. variety; and these plays form a very incon The first stage of our inquiry will embrace siderable portion of their works. In other the detailed proofs of the foregoing statewords, the drama at one time occupied a ments respecting the uniformity everywhere large and distinct place in the national po- visible in the causes which produced the etry, and the greatest poets had no higher drama. To begin with the Greek :—An alambition than to cultivate it with success; tar is erected, and on it a goat sacrificed to it now occupies no such place, and neither the god Dionysus; around the altar is a band attracts nor rewards the devotion of such of drunken revellers, bearing the Phallos, energies. This is what we mean by saying and disguised as satyrs, dressed in goat-skins that it has no existence at present. History and deer-skins, their bodies stained with will convince us that the existence of this soot, vermilion, and green, their faces coverart depends on causes no longer in operation. ed with masks or huge leaves; they dance The drama was a religious festival before and sing, roar out obscene jests and impasit became an amusement; this not only in sioned songs, throw themselves into fantasone country, but universally. Otherwise tic attitudes, and celebrate the virtues, exwe might wonder, with M. Patin and the ploits, and sorrows of Bacchus. It is not Germans, that the Greeks did not sooner clear how the drama could proceed from possess a drama, seeing that they possessed such a 'rabble rout.' We see nothing here all its elements in the works of Homer: ac- but the mummeries in which most nations tion, character, passion, and dialogue. The have delighted: the Lithuanians, the Swedes, 'Iliad' has, in consequence, been theoreti- nay, even the inhabitants of the Himmalayas, cally distributed into several plays. We are have had such, yet no drama. We might called upon to notice the fact that the narra- as well expect to see a tragedy issuing from tive portions need only be placed in the the mummeries of sweeps on Mayday, which mouth of the ayyelos, and the speeches to were also, we are told, once symbolical and be spoken by the separate characters, to pro- religious. Nevertheless, from the Bacchic duce a complete drama out of the first book rout the drama rose. Arion came, and transof the Iliad.* The same argument might formed this irregular band into a regular be applied to Chaucer, in whose 'Canter-chorus. The flute was changed for the cibury Tales' there is dramatic character va- thara; the rapid pyrrhic dances for slow and riously set forth, together with humour and solemn movements; the wildness of jest for pathos, cutting satire and exquisite tender- the tragic and impassioned 'strain which exYet no drama was produced till up- pressed the sorrows and victories of the god. wards of a century after their publication. The comic element was not suppressed, but Small as the step seems, there was no one separated from the tragic. It continued to to take it. Why should there have been? flourish, and gave birth to Comedy; but we Homer and Chaucer sufficed; the narrative have no more to do with it here. The dipoem gave perfect delight; no one thought thyramb was formed; the chorus was seriof altering it into something else. The drama ous; but a drama was still far from being had to grow up from an original soil: that constituted. Thespis came, and laid the soil was religion. It was a distinct species, foundation stone. Standing on an elevated fulfilling a distinct office from the epic. platform, he varied the monotony of the The origin of the Greek drama is by uni- songs with recitations in character. He is versal consent referred to the ceremonies of said to have invented the first actor; and the worship of Bacchus. The dithyrambs, this one actor sufficed for all the parts, since by means of a linen mask he was enabled to ness. ་ Patin, Etudes,' ., p. 4; Bode, Gesch. der represent different characters who appeared Dram. Dicht.,' pp. 5, 6. on the platform one after the other, and oc * casionally answered the chorus. This step, plays;' the early plays were throughout small as it appears, was in truth immense, Europe exclusively religious. That their for it was in the right direction. To the object was religious instruction in the shape singing of the chorus was now added recita- of an entertainment is expressly stated tion, and this, with the aid of occasional by various authorities. The Miracle-play dialogue, enabled them to represent a story; was nothing but a portion of religious docthe first elements of tragedy, the assump- trine represented in action: an amusement tion of character, and by it throwing the le- with a religious object. The Scriptures gend into an action instead of a narration, were then untranslated, and these plays must were thus secured. Phrynicus succeeded have formed an efficient source of religious Thespis, and made another improvement in instruction, far surpassing church-service. the introduction of female characters. He Mr. Collier, who is well entitled to speak did not venture on adding to the single actor on this subject, says, that in their earliest of Thespis, but he used it differently. It is state these pieces were of the simplest connot to be overlooked that by the time Phry-struction, merely following the incidents of nicus wrote, the religious character of the Scripture, or of the Pseudo Evangelium, the drama had undergone considerable change. dialogue being maintained by the characters Instead of a purely Dionysiac legend, he in- introduced. By degrees, however, more introduced subjects of national interest. The vention was displayed, particularly with ref'Phænissæ ' and the Capture of Miletus'erence to the persons concerned in the conhad nothing whatever to do with Bacchus. duct of the story.'† It is evident, therefore, that although we On looking into these Miracle-plays, we have no positive information as to the nature are struck with the extraordinary mixture of the plays of Phrynicus, they must have of simplicity, buffoonery, extravagance, been very different from those of Thespis. piety, and what, to modern ears, sounds like The drama had taken another and consider- blasphemy. Priests and sacred persons able stride instead of being a mere reli- kick and cuff each other, with all the freegious festival, it had admitted subjects of hu-dom of a modern farce. Scurrilous jests, man and national interest. The honest populace occasionally took offence; for as Plutarch informs us, missing and regretting the satyric chorus in the legends and tales of national suffering which Phrynicus and Eschylus represented, they cried out, What is this to Bacchus? In the plays of Eschylus which have come down to us, we may clearly see that the religious, or rather the Dionysiac element, has been almost entirely displaced. Eschylus was universally regarded as the father of tragedy, his improvements must have been very considerable we are entitled, therefore, to assume that the plays of Phrynicus were rude, inartifi-handle.' Touches of pathos, and strains of cial, and feeble, compared to those of Eschy lus; and indeed of a different structure, or Eschylus would not have been named the father of tragedy. We shall endeavour hereafter to state the cause of his being so named. obscene jests, and dull, prosing sermons, fill up the greater portion of the dialogue. The excess of rustic buffoonery is not seldom mixed up with the most appalling subjects; as in the quarrel between Cain and Abel, which commences by an invitation from the former to salute the least honourable part of his person, and that in the least honourable manner. We may say, however, with the author of the 'Historia Histrionica,' the taste of that age was not so nice and delicate in these matters; the plain and incurious judgment of our ancestors being prepared with favour, and taking everything by the easiest higher mood,' occasionally redeem the dreary nonsense of these pieces. Of the former, we may notice Abraham's turning aside to weep, pretending he has lost something, exclaiming: What water shoots into both mine eyes? I should have been more glad than of all worldly gain, if I had found him once unkind; but I never found him in fault.'‡ The very titles show this: The Fall of Man,' 'The Death of Abel,' The Flood,' Abraham's Sacrifice,' Moses and the Ten Tables,' 'The Genealogy of Christ,' Anna's pregnancy,' 'Mary in the Temple,' The Birth of Christ,' The adoration of the Magi,' The Temptation,' Christ disputing in the Temple,' Christ Betrayed,'' The trial of Christ,' 'Crucifixion,''Descent into Hell,' Sealing of the Tomb,' 'The Resurrection,' are amongst the Coventry plays. ་ Hist. of Dram. Poet.,' ii. 124. This is Mr. Collier's modernisation, vol. ii., p. 166, Of the latter, Noah's description of the falling flood is a specimen : "Behold the heavens, They are open, full even, And the planets seven Strike down the strong halls And castles and towers." The obscene jests and fantastic attitudes of the Bacchic rout' were symbolical; of course, in later times, they lost this sense, and had to be stopped. So in Italy we find, about the middle of the fifteenth century, the Archbishop of Florence scandalised at the vulgar buffooneries, jests and gestures, as well as the absurd masks worn by the actors, that he interdicted all further performances in churches, and commanded the priest to abstain altogether from performing." The An excellent account of these Miracle-Moralities;' a decided step, though a small The Miracle-plays were succeeded by plays will be found, together with twelve one, towards the formation of a drama. The whole pieces, in a work published at Basle, difference between the Moral-play or Moin 1838. Mr. Collier has also given ana- rality and its predecessor, consists solely in lyses and extracts of several. We need not the characters being abstract and allegorical, enter into any detailed comparison of these instead of concrete and historical. plays with the Dionysiac festivals. The stu- Morality resembled the Autos Sacramentadent is at once struck with the similarity of les of Spain; Truth, Pity, Perverse Ignoreligious intention in both; and with the rance, Justice, Peace, and other moral qualiwild, extravagant, coarse, but awe-inspiring ties, usurped the place of scriptural personmeans which both employed. They were ages. Mr. Collier has well shown how both performed on days of festival; they abstract impersonations, by degrees, found were both accompanied by music and pa- their way into Miracle-plays. As these ingeantry-the one by a flute and the dance, novations became numerous, the scriptural the other by an organ; in both, long admo- characters fell into the back-ground. Havnitory choruses filled the interstices of the ing got rid of the purely religious subjects, action. One word, however, on the buffoon- and substituted others moral and allegorical, eries common to both. In the infancy of na- the next step was easy: it was only necestions, as of men, the sense of the incongru-sary to attempt individual instead of allegor ous is dull; unaccustomed to the critical re- ical character, and to represent scenes of fining tendencies of advanced culture, our real life and manners instead of abstract ancestors could enjoy parody and practical joking, but had little perception of those incongruities which so strongly affect us. They took everything much as it came, and by the easiest handle. They were neither subtle nor fastidious, and therefore did not trouble themselves with separating and classifying. It would be a perilous thing for a modern clergyman to lead an ass up to the altar during divine service. The fact, faOn a first glance, it seems a great fall, miliar enough to all, that our Saviour enter- from the serious heights of scripture instruced Jerusalem on the back of an ass, would tion, to the buffooneries of 'Gammer Gurnot suffice to keep down the risible emotions ton,' undertaken for the amusement, and the of the devoutest. And what would be the not very dignified amusement, of the popueffect if the ass was not only placed there, but lace. The same phenomenon is visible in the minister was to begin braying? Would Greece: the mysteries of Bacchus were set not every mind revolt at such a scene? Yet aside for the events of contemporary history. our ancestors saw nothing in it but a sym- The fall is only apparent; or, if real, the bolical act, at which they bowed and cross-drama, like Antæus, only touched its mother ed themselves. And what do we think now earth to rise again with greater vigour. In of the act of initiation into the order of the hands of succeeding poets the richness Knights Templar, the spitting on the cross of the soil was amply proved. Indeed, on Is it not an infamy, a sacrilege, at which looking at the history of the drama, we are It was once a sacred almost led to assert, that such a decline was necessary for subsequent perfection. It was every one shudders? symbol. * A collection of English Miracle-plays, containing ten dramas from the Chester, Coventry, and Townley series, with two of later date. By W. Marriott. morals, and the first rude sketch of a drama was accomplished. This step was taken by Nicholas Udall, in the comedy of Ralph Royster Doyster,' which we have evidence for asserting was in existence as early as 1551.† In it, as in Gammer Gurton,' The Four P's,' and the rest, we see religion and allegory completely banished, and life, in its every-day aspect, substituted. * Quadria, 'Storia d'ogni Poesia,' v., p. 207. † Mr. Collier has given an analysis of it, vol. ii., pp. 451-60. Gurton,' fresh from the heart of the nation, than all the pedantic excellence of Jodelle. Fortunately, the imitation was not a close one. The external peculiarities of the Greek theatre were somewhat copied; the spirit was modern : a cursory view of Jodelle, Garnier, Maret, &c., betrays this. Even as late as Corneille the grotesque and familiar are mixed up with the serious, and the style often ignoble, or inflated. a rude beginning but on the right ground. last in getting it represented before Henry II., The tragedies of the Greeks were known to and the Friars, who had hitherto refused to scholars; and as the poets of that age were play anything but sacred pieces, now conall scholars, they might easily have imitated sented to play his. We cannot but regard the lofty, passionate, poetical language which this success as eminently unfortunate. It they so warmly admired. But imitation sti- transferred the drama to the court-a misefles art. The attempt to transplant shoots rable soil, compared to the nation-and the and branches to another soil is useless la- French drama never recovered from the bour; the soil must be tilled, and it will error, but remained courtly till it had ceased bear its own fruit and flowers; the trans-to possess vigour. Better far a 'Gammer planted flower withers in a day. A fortunate condition both of the stage and of audiences, prevented imitation being successful in England. It was tried often enough; Seneca and Euripides were translated, but they succeeded only in the Universities and the Temple; with learned audiences, not with the nation. The people relished the rude productions of their own country. It was their own life, their own thoughts, they were called to enjoy, and they enjoyed. Seneca's laboured rhetoric touched them not. 'Gorbuduc' might be, as Sir Philip Sidney said it was, 'full of stately speeches and well-sounding phrases, climbing to the height of Seneca his style, and as full of notable morality.' It did indeed contain much poetry which, even in the present day, may be called fine, and which in its day was mar-paratively recent date. The reason of this vellous; but the people preferred their ruder, more familiar comedy, to all the stately speeches' in the world." 'Better a nation's life, however slow, A still more striking instance is afforded by In France the phenomena are very similar. There, as elsewhere, the learned attempted to introduce Greek and Roman plays, but only partially succeeded. Ronsard tells us that: 'Jodelle le premier, d'une plainte hardie, Françoisement chanta la grecque tragé lie.' But translations of Sophocles and Euripides had been published before Jodelle's imitaThey were not acted, however, nor could Jodelle get his first piece performed without great difficulty. He succeeded at tion. In Spain we see a closer resemblance to the march of events in England. The religious plays, however, continued to a much later period. By far the greater portion of Calderon's works are Autos Sacramentales; and we are told that the performance of such pieces formed a part of the monastic education, even to within a com longer continuance of the religious drama, is probably the undisturbed continuance of the Catholic faith in Spain. Religion received no shock there from the reformation. The religious drama had the same office to fulfil during the whole period; and Calderon the poet was also Calderon the Inquisitor. Side by side, however, with this religious drama, we have to notice a new species growing up; sprung originally from it, but quickly striking into a new path. This was the national drama. The separation took place as early as the thirteenth century, when an especial law was enacted to forbid priests from performing in the juegos de escarnios, ridicule-pieces. These were, therefore, consigned to regular actors, who, selecting some piece from low-life, illustrated it with rough hilarity. The scholars of course attempted to introduce the classical models. Villalobos translated the 'Amphitryon' of Plautus. Perez de Oliva attempted the Electra' of Sophocles and the 'Hecuba' of Euripides (the favorite pieces of European translators of this age), and other writers followed in abundance. But, as Bouterweck says, 'The translators, even those who endeavoured to conciliate public taste by prose versions, formed with their learned friends a solitary party.' The first man who saw distinctly the wants of the audience was Torres Naharro. He was the first to write a comedy, such as Spaniards |