and, likewise, in accord with many of the best theories and practices of the age anywhere. Moreover, the state was extremely fortunate in the choice of officers who were charged with the early administration of her educational policies and of her public schools.

Acting on the authority imposed by the constitution and in harmony with the advice of Governor Mason, the legislature, in 1836, provided for putting into operation the new school ideals. Rev. John Pierce, a native of the East and a man of education, training, and broad experience, was made Superintendent of Public Instruction, and was ordered to devise and to present to the next legislature a plan for a system of elementary schools, a scheme for a university having branches giving secondary instruction, and a policy for conserving the state school funds derived from the sale of public lands. No better choice of an educational administrator could have been made. The efficacy of education as a regenerating factor in modern life was a basal tenet in Mr. Pierce's creed. He had a profound conviction that a system of public schools, well articulated and conducted, would be the basis for all economic, social, and political progress of the new state. He had been a member of the Constitutional Convention and had served on the Committee of Education in that body. He, moreover, had been a close student of foreign school systems, especially the Prussian system as presented in Cousin's report. He was imbued with the belief that a strongly centralized state system was the ideal, and that it was especially needed in a new and changing territory. An educational authority like Prussia's could keep its hand upon every type of school and every phase of instruction, and could prevent waste, local jealousies, and superficiality.

Fortune and the current of events, too, facilitated

Mr. Pierce's policies. The decline in education that had started in New England even before the close of the seventeenth century and had spread to all the other colonies, had reached its lowest point some ten or twelve years before this date, and the return influence and the inevitable reaction had begun. There now was an educational advance on all sides. This was the decade of the second great awakening in American life; this was the Era of the American Revival of Learning. At this very time, Horace Mann was in the midst of his victorious fight for better schools and better school laws in Massachusetts. At this time, Henry Barnard was just at the threshold of his career in Connecticut. At this time, the democratic wave under Andrew Jackson was spreading over the land and carrying with it a demand for an equal opportunity for all individuals in politics, in business, and in education. America was at peace with the world. The Indians had in large numbers been removed beyond the Mississippi and were no longer an immediate menace and danger. Western lands were cheap; the Federal debt had been entirely paid; and the central government had adopted the policy of distributing to the several states the surplus revenue of the treasury. The Erie Canal had been opened, a short time previously, and now connected the Great Lakes with the seaboard. Railroads were beginning to be laid; public highways were opened; canals were dug; "pet banks" were distributed here and there throughout the new West. Visions of wealth, leisure, and happiness. filled the minds of all, and optimism reigned supreme.

1

To facilitate the realization of these dreams, schools were everywhere demanded. The Northwest now took on that "passion for learning" that ever since has constituted one of her most characteristic features. The new

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State of Michigan was caught up by the rising spirit of hope and expectancy, and demanded, with her sister states, a system of education that should be commensurate with the new ideals and contributory to the democratic and universal aspirations.

When the legislature reconvened in January, 1837, Superintendent Pierce made his report and offered his proposed plan. This document was a remarkable piece of educational wisdom. It provided for a system of schools extending from the rural district school to the university, and resembling in scope and articulation the plan that was proposed in the Law of 1817. There were to be elementary schools in every district and these were to be free and compulsory to all youth for a period of at least three months in the year. There was a recommendation for a minimum salary law for teachers and for a law requiring a regular course of professional training for them, together with state certifications of their qualifications.

Mr. Pierce also outlined a policy for conserving the school funds arising from the sale of the public lands, and in addition made other advanced and wise suggestions which however do not directly bear upon the present theme. Suffice it to say that the plan of instruction proposed at the time was in nearly perfect accord with what Mr. Mann was advocating at the same period for Massachusetts. Had Mr. Pierce's suggestions been put more fully into operation one cannot doubt but that the school system of Michigan would have been even better and stronger than it was.

Still there were extenuating circumstances which should be taken into consideration in forming a judgment of the shortcomings of the legislature and the people. However clearly a theorist may have an image of the ideal, it is not always the part of practical wisdom to

attempt to attain to it at one effort. In this instance the legislature was doubtless wise in not making into mandatory law all of Mr. Pierce's recommendations. Indeed, time proved that much that was undertaken was not realizable and had later to be abandoned. Nevertheless, the plan as outlined by Mr. Pierce constitutes the true concrete beginnings of the state policy respecting education. The more important specific recommendations may be summarized thus:1

1. All school lands were to be sold and the proceeds to be invested according to the provisions of the law.

2. The powers and duties of the Superintendent of Public Instruction were to be specifically defined.

3. Provisions for the organization and administration of the elementary schools were made according to the following plan:

(a) The school district was to be made the unit and was to have its own elective school officers-moderator, assessor, and director-whose duties and powers were specifically defined.

(b) Township libraries were to be established and supported by means of

(1) The surplus from fines.

(2) The surplus from military exemptions.

(3) A direct township tax of ten dollars annually. (c) Township boards of school inspectors were to be provided, and their duties defined.

(d) An exact plan for the distribution of the school funds was framed and the amount allotted to each district was made dependent on the school population.

(e) A complete system of official reports from inferior officers to superior officers was outlined.

(f) Local districts were given permissive power to levy an additional school tax.

(g) Townships were required to raise annually by township tax a sum of money for school purposes equal to that contributed by the state.

1 Senate Documents, 1838, pp. 15 ff.

4. Provision was made for the establishment of academies or branches of the university to give secondary instruction.

5. The university was organized.

6. Provision was made for securing professional training of teachers and for state certification of them.

7. A plan for a minumum salary law was proposed.

The legislature accepted the report of Mr. Pierce and embodied his recommendations, almost in toto, into law. Free schools were not, however, provided at this time, nor was the Superintendent of Public Instruction given the authority that was essential to make his position one of real power and dignity. Neither was a minimum salary law enacted.

The law of 1837 authorized the sale of the public lands, the work to be carried on under the direction of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. Here again Mr. Pierce rendered excellent service to the state. Not only was he an educator of high rank but he was an equally capable and efficient financier and business administrator Under his supervision the sales were made at auction and brought good prices. The law itself specified that no public land should be sold for less than eight dollars per acre. The actual selling price averaged about twelve dollars per acre. A small cash deposit was required of each purchaser and permission was given whereby the remainder of the obligation was to be made in annual installments.

At first all parties seem to have been satisfied and pleased. Then came the financial panic of 1837, with its attendant complications, bankruptcies, and losses. Optimism gave place to pessimism. The decade had witnessed an era of the wildest of "wild-cat" banking and

1 Mr. Pierce advised that power be granted him and his successors "to hear and decide all questions arising under the public school system." This would have made the superintendent an absolute supreme judge. The legislature denied the request.