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SATURDAY, AUGUST 1, 1874.

LITERATURE

JOSEPH PRIESTLEY.

An Appeal to the Public on the Subject of the Riots in Birmingham. By Joseph Priestley, LL.D., &c. (Birmingham, 1791.) WITH Prof. Huxley for priest or apologist, Birmingham is to-day to make some atonement for the wrong done eighty-three years ago to its greatest worthy. The most memorable and deplorable incident of the famous Birmingham Riots, on the 14th of July, 1791, was the attack on Dr. Priestley, and the burning of his house and property, on account of his sympathy with the French Revolution. To-day all classes will unite in doing honour to him as a man who in politics only anticipated opinions that are now held openly by most people, and who, if his speculations and discoveries in science and philosophy were somewhat crude and incomplete, has rendered incalculable service to the progress of philosophic and scientific thought. Any one who has made much inquiry into the life and mental history of Priestley, must have been struck, not only by the amount of good work that he actually accomplished, but also by the skill and patience with which, like other successful workmen, he overcame, or laboured to overcome, the difficulties that were in his way. Those difficulties, indeed, arose as much from his own eagerness to do more work than it would seem possible for one man to do as from the outward circumstances of his life. The latter, however, were sufficiently embarrassing. Brought up so devoutly, within the narrow range of Dissenting society in the first half of the eighteenth century, that at the age of four he could repeat the whole of the Shorter Catechism, and, when six and a half, used to take the lead in small family prayer meetings, it must have been hard work for him to shake off the injurious effects of his early training; and we find that he could not quite do it even in the course of his lifetime of seventy years. Yet he began to try early, and the mere accumulation of other learning must have weakened the effect upon him of the Shorter Catechism. Before he was out of his teens he mastered Latin and acquired some familiarity with Greek and Hebrew, besides knowing a little Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic, and a good deal of French, Italian, and German. Most of this study was preparatory to his becoming a Dissenting minister, for which vocation an aunt with whom he lived designed him; and with the same end he pursued his studies at Dr. Doddridge's Academy at Daventry, of which Dr. Ashworth was then tutor. In this theological school he learnt more than his aunt intended. At first a strict Calvinist, he began, along with some fellow-students, to have doubts about original sin and everlasting punishment, and on other points to be " a heretic"; "but," he adds, "the extreme of heresy among us was Arianism, and all of us, I believe, left the Academy with a belief, more or less modified, of the doctrine of the Atonement."

These dawnings of free-thought, however, did not lessen his desire to be a minister. In 1755, when he was twenty-two, he took charge

of a congregation at Needham Market, in Suffolk, from which he expected about 401. a year. It did not yield as much as 307. "If it had not been," he says, "for. . . procuring me now and then an extraordinary 51. from different charities, I do not believe I could have subsisted." After three years he removed to Nantwich, in Cheshire, where, during another three years, he combined schoolmaster's with preacher's work, before becoming a more distinguished schoolmaster in Warrington. Between 1761 and 1767 he was tutor of languages and belles-lettres at Warrington Academy, under Dr. Aikin. There, having previously written several theological works, he prepared some school-books. He even wrote poetry. "Mrs. Barbauld has told me," he says, in his charming Autobiography, "that it was the perusal of some verses of mine that first induced her to write anything in verse." There, too, he married, and he describes his wife as "a woman of an excellent understanding, much improved by reading; of great fortitude and strength of mind, and of a temper in the highest degree affectionate and generous, feeling strongly for others and little for herself." But Mrs. Priestley had to think about herself now and then, and yet more about her children; and the 100l. a year that her husband's tutorship brought him was hardly more adequate to his wants, now that he had a family to support, than had been his 301. at Needham Market ten or twelve years before. It is true that he received some of the Academy pupils as boarders at 157. a year each, but that did not yield much profit. With some regrets he felt it necessary to exchange Warrington, with the society of the Aikins and other leading Unitarians, for Leeds, where he was minister of Mill Hill Chapel, still at a salary of only 100l., but with some advantages that helped to increase his income.

At Leeds he began to attain eminence as a man of science, though for a long time previously he had been occupying himself profitably with scientific studies. At Nantwich he scraped up money enough to buy an air-pump and an electrical machine; and he made such good use of the latter, and of such books as he could borrow, Benjamin Franklin being his great helper in this matter, that in 1767 he produced his History and Present State of Electricity, with Original Experiments,' which won him much fame, and which was followed shortly afterwards by the 'History and Present State of Discoveries relating to Vision, Light, and Colours.' At Leeds he lived near a brewery, and that circumstance is supposed to have induced him to turn his attention to pneumatic chemistry, for the study of which it afforded certain facilities. At any rate, he there began the series of chemical discoveries on which his scientific fame chiefly rests. 1772 he published a pamphlet on Impregnating Water with Fixed Air,' and also communicated to the Royal Society Observations on Different Kinds of Air,' which led to his obtaining the Society's Copley medal. 1774 he discovered "dephlogisticated air," or oxygen; and that was quickly followed by the discovery of other chemical elements and elemental compounds, of which the chief were nitrous gas, nitrous oxide gas, nitrous vapour, carbonic oxide gas, sulphurous oxide gas, fluoric acid gas, muriatic gas, and ammoniacal gas, as well as the pneumatic apparatus that

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is now in common use. By these exploits he may be said to have almost invented chemistry as a precise science. But he took a moderate estimate of his attainments therein. "Though I have made many discoveries in some branches of chemistry," he wrote, in 1795, "I never gave much attention to the common routine of it, and know but little of the common processes.'

While Priestley was at Leeds a curious incident occurred. It was proposed that Capt. Cook's second voyage to the Southern Seas should be accompanied by a well-organized scientific expedition, under the direction of Sir Joseph Banks. Banks asked Priestley to join it as astronomer, and he acceded. Some weeks afterwards, however, Banks had to inform his friend that the appointment must be cancelled, as the Board of Longitude objected to his theology. It is not strange that on this occasion Priestley should have shown more indignation than was customary to his gentle nature. "What I am, and what they are, in respect of religion," he wrote to Banks, in December, 1771, "might easily have been known before the thing was proposed to me at all. Besides, I thought that this had been a business of philosophy, and not of divinity. If, however, this be the case, I shall hold the Board of Longitude in extreme contempt." So did other people.

In 1773, Priestley left Leeds to be librarian and literary companion to the Earl of Shelburne, afterwards Marquis of Lansdowne, Financial reasons appear to have chiefly prompted this change, as by it he obtained a salary of 250l. a year, to be followed by a pension of 150l., instead of his meagre income of 1007., terminable at the will of his congregation. It was useful, however, in other ways. He had access to good books and to congenial society, both in England and abroad. He travelled through France, Belgium, Holland, and Germany, and made many new friends. The Paris chemists and mathematicians told him he was the only respectable philosopher or man of science known to them who believed in Christianity. But Priestley, though a good Christian to the last, was becoming so liberal in his views, that people began to call him an atheist. Some of his boldest views found expression in 'Disquisitions relating to Matter and Spirit,' published in 1777, a book which attempted to show that "man is wholly material, and our only prospect of immortality is from the Christian doctrine of the Resurrection." In 1782, appeared a more important work, 'The History of the Corruptions of Christianity,' which some pious folk in Germany burnt publicly.

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Either on account of his heresies, or for some other reason, Priestley parted from Lord Shelburne in 1780. Then began his residence in Birmingham, forming the most memorable decade in his career. "I consider my settlement at Birmingham," he wrote, "as the happiest event in my life, being highly favourable to every object I had in view, philosophical or theological. In the former respect, I had the convenience of good workmen of every kind, and the society of persons eminent for their knowledge of chemistry, especially Mr. Watt, Mr. Keir, and Dr. Withering. These, with Mr. Boulton and Dr. Darwin, Mr. Galton, and afterwards Mr.