METHOD OF CHOICE, SIZE OF CONSTITUENCIES, QUALIFICATIONS OF MEMBERS, TENURE OF LOWER CHAMBER TOTAL COUNTRY Italy MEMBERSHIP SIZE OF CONSTITUENCIES METHOD OF CHOICE QUALIFICATIONS OF MEMBERS TENURE OF OFFICE 508 Electoral districts Direct election, with Qualified citizens at 5 years consist of Provinces Scrutin de liste. least 30 years of represented by at Voters, male and age. Government The largest district, adult citizens least 10 deputies. female, must be officials and ecclesi deputies ble astics are not eligi UPPER CHAMBER TOTAL SIZE OF CONSTITUENCIES 368 METHOD OF CHOICE QUALIFICATIONS OF TENURE OF SALARY None Number which may Nomination by the Over 40 years of age be appointed by king king is not limited Princes of the blood and of special distinction in any of have the right to several branches METHOD OF CHOICE, SIZE OF CONSTITUENCIES, QUALIFICATIONS OF MEMBERS, TENURE OF OFFICE, ETC., OF LEGISLATIVE IN DIFFERENT STATES (Continued) LOWER CHAMBER COUNTRY TOTAL SIZE OF CONSTITUENCIES wealths on a basis of population METHOD OF CHOICE QUALIFICATIONS OF MEMBERS TENURE OF OFFICE SALARY 1 representative for Direct election by Qualified citizen, 25 2 years $7500 a year each 212,407 popu- qualified voters in lation single electoral dis A reapportionment tricts is made after each census, but thus far none has been made to correspond to figures of the 1920 census years of age, 7 years and travel- Speaker has year a 2 members from each By direct election Qualified citizen, 30 6 years Same as for commonwealth ir- by qualified voters years old, 9 years respective of the size or population a resident of the United States, and resident in the commonwealth from which chosen lower house, the United as presiding officer CHAPTER V THE EXECUTIVE I. EXECUTIVE AS AGENT OF THE LEGISLATIVE The executive is primarily that organ of government which is responsible for putting the laws into effect and securing their due operation throughout the state. Thus, primarily, the executive is the administrative agent of the legislative. Duties and Functions of Executive as Administrative Agent of Legislative. The duties and functions of the executive when acting in his primary capacity as the administrative agent of the legislative are varied and important. The executive is responsible for the collection of all public moneys, whether from internal taxation or from tariff on imports, and for the expenditure of such moneys; for the relations of the state with all other states in the family of nations; for the maintenance of the national defense by the use of the army and navy if needful; for the preservation of civil rights to individual citizens by the use of the police power if necessary; for the utilization of the natural resources of the country in a manner which shall most benefit the whole body of the citizens of the state; for the efficient supervision of all agencies affecting the general interests of all citizens, as agencies of transportation, communication, and the like; for the insurance of equitable relations between the great bodies of capital and labor, that the general prosperity of business may be forwarded at the same time that the rights of individuals are safeguarded. Such are among the most important functions of the executive organ acting as the administrative agent of the legislative in a modern democratic state. Personnel of Executive Necessary to Act as Administrative Agent of Legislative.-The personnel of the executive department charged with administering the laws of the country is large in number. All members of the army and navy, all the officials of the various departments of state, as the State Department, the Treasury Department, the Department of the Interior, etc., all diplomatic and consular representatives, all revenue collectors of whatever kind, all of the thousands of assistants, clerks, and the like necessary for the subordinate duties in the various departments, all these are a part of the executive in that they are concerned, however humbly, with the administration of the laws of the state. In its personnel the executive far outnumbers the other branches of government. Unity Advisable for Executive Head.-For the headship of this great department experience has proved that it is wise to have a single person. For legislative deliberation many heads are better than one, but for executive action, the requirements of unity, resolution, and at times quickness of decision are best served by one head. Thus we find a king, an emperor, a czar, a sultan, a president, or the like at the head of each of the governments in the civilized world to-day. Switzerland presents the single notable exception to this general rule in that it has an executive head composed of a council of seven persons, each sharing the actual executive power equally with his colleagues. Nominal and Actual Executive Heads.-A distinction should be observed between those states in which the executive head is actually in control of his functions, and those in which the executive head is only nominally in control, his functions being actually determined by others. In the United States the executive head, the President, is an actual executive. He may receive advice and may consult with many persons both in and out of official life, but the final decision and all the responsibility rest with him. In England, France, post-war Germany, and Italy, on the contrary, a body of ministers determines the policy and dictates the action of the executive head. The executive head in these states is still a single person, and all executive action must be taken nominally by him, but in actual fact decision and responsibility rest upon the body of ministers. necessary. Appointment of Assistants to Executive Head. To cope with the vast amount of business included in the administration of the laws, a correspondingly vast number of officials is The selection and supervision of these officials in a large measure fall upon the executive head. Thus he appoints diplomatic representatives, postmasters, officers of the army (although these appointments are now largely a and navy matter of regular promotion), revenue agents, and the like. Much of the success of his administration depends upon the wisdom of his choice. exercise to are open to merit as shown In various countries the abuse of the appointing power in its repay political debts, thus ousting worthy employees of the state and replacing them with inexperienced persons, has led to the establishment of a civil service system, by competitive examinations. whereby a large number of positions in the service of the state Thus, in the United States, certain grades of postmasters and a large proportion of the clerks engaged in executive departments hold their positions secure from political changes. The number and importance of the offices remaining under the direct appointing power of the President in this country, however, still make this power one of the most important he wields for the good or evil of the administration. Responsibility of Executive Head for the Work Done by His Appointees.—It is not to be understood that the responsibility of the executive head ends with the appointment of a in the department. subordinate in If the governor-general of India is at fault in any matter, the responsibility falls upon the representative in Tangiers makes trouble for his nation, the English ministry to whom he is subordinate; if the French attack in France is made upon the ministry conducting the government; if our foreign minister to Mexico involves us in |