The surroundings of the school decide the trend of the practical instruction to be given by the teacher.

In Brazil elementary and secondary education are supported and controlled by the authorities of the federal district and of each State in their respective territories. Higher public education is under the control of the Federal Government, being administered by the secretary of the interior. Schools generally begin in February or March and continue until November or December.

The German educational exhibit covered about 50,000 square feet of space and was divided into five departments: 1, Universities and scientific institutions; 2, Chemistry; 3, Scientific instruments; 4, Medicine; 5, Elementary and advanced education. The exhibit of universities and scientific institutions consisted largely of models, photographs, and books descriptive of the equipment of the institutions. There were also numerous statistical and graphical charts illustrating the work and growth of the institutions. The German exhibit was noted for the large number of books and other printed matter displayed, and the minute and pertinent information on all the subjects of instruction and organization. Its medical exhibit was limited to five departments of medical science, namely, bacteriology, anatomy, surgery, pathological anatomy, and internal medicine, to which was added a Roentgen cabinet furnished with the newest apparatus. The main object of this exhibit was to show the system of medical instruction followed in the German universities and the apparatus used during instruction. The characteristic features of the German school organization are shown in 24 brief tables on pages 1241-1252.

The remarkable advance of Japan in educational lines in recent years was strikingly shown at St. Louis. Education in its modern sense was unknown in Japan prior to the restoration in 1868. An imperial university was established in 1869, and in 1871 educational affairs were entrusted to an independent department of state.

A noticeable feature of the Japanese exhibit was the evidence it gave of the large provision in its school system for technical education. Institutions for technical education are of three grades, higher technical schools, technical schools of secondary grade, and apprentice schools. In these schools are found courses in engineering, agriculture, fishery, commerce, navigation, etc. The statistical table on page 1254 gives the status of educational institutions in Japan in 1901, and shows an enrollment in all classes of schools of 5,265,006. There are two universities in the Empire, with an attendance of 3,612 students.

The organization of the school system of Sweden and its exhibit at St. Louis are described on pages 1270-1275 by Carl Lidman, commissioner to the exposition. Compulsory education in common

schools was introduced in 1842. Common schools are divided generally into two departments, the infant school for beginners and the common school proper for more advanced pupils. School age is counted from the seventh to the fourteenth year. The obligatory period extends through six years, two in the infant school and four in the common school. In 1902 there were 761,814 children of school age. Of this number 94 per cent received instruction in infant and common schools, and 6 per cent in secondary schools, special schools, and in homes. Instruction in sloyd and in domestic economy is given in the common schools.

State school laws.-In Chapter IV is given a revised digest of the school laws of the various States. The next previous compilation of this kind was published in Chapter IX of the Annual Report for 1894. The matter is arranged under four heads, viz: (1) The organization of the school system in each State, including the superintendents and other officers and the division into districts; (2) the teachers, their methods of appointment, their training and duties; (3) the schools, including attendance and studies; and (4) the financial support of the schools.

Statistics of growth.-Chapter II (pp. 25-132) gives in detail the measurements of the school children of Worcester, Mass., made by Prof. Franz Boas with the assistance of a number of students of Clark University. The large number of particulars recorded in the case of each child, and the care with which the work was conducted, render this collection of data peculiarly valuable.

The tables of measurements are preceded by a preliminary investigation of some problems bearing upon the growth of children, the treatment of which at the same time illustrates the methods of reducing observations of this character and discussing the results arrived at. In the prosecution of this study Doctor Boas has had the cooperation of Dr. Clark Wissler, and besides his own measurements makes use of data from other reliable sources. In particular, an attempt is made to correlate the various groups of measurements, so as to determine at what stage of development of children a tendency is shown to vary most from the normal, for all the different measurements to vary in the same direction.

Education in England.-A statistical survey of education in England is given in Chapter XII (pp. 799–833), together with an extended account of the operations of the law of 1902, which effected a radical change in the local administration of elementary education. An epitome of the main provisions of the law comprised in the chapter enables the reader to comprehend the bearing of the year's record. (For full text of the law see Report for 1902, pp. 1017-1026.)

It appears that rapid progress has been made in transferring the local control of the public elementary schools from elected school

boards to the county and municipal councils as required by the law. By this time (1904) the transfer has been completed throughout the country, including the metropolis, which was the subject of a special law (1903) providing for the same administrative change within its area. Confidence is expressed that under the new conditions it will be possible to bring the various agencies of public education into a coordinate whole in each administrative division; in this way overlappings and duplication of schools may be prevented, with a gain in the scope and efficiency of the educational facilities. The local councils, it is reported, are, in general, carrying out their new duties with great energy and with a wise consideration for the various bodies with which they are thus brought into relation. Conflict has arisen in some cases between the councils and the governing bodies of private schools with respect to the limited authority over these schools granted to the councils, but for the most part the questions in dispute have been amicably adjusted.

While on the whole the change in the local administration of the schools has progressed rapidly and smoothly, the financial policy of the law is still bitterly opposed.

Prior to the passage of the law of 1902 sectarian or parochial schools could not draw support from local taxes, but they are now placed in that respect upon the same footing as nonsectarian schools under public control. This provision, at variance with the deep-seated principle in English administration, that public control should follow public funds, has been met by a refusal on the part of thousands of citizens to pay the portion of the school tax that presumably would be applied to sectarian instruction. In Wales this policy of "passive resistance," as it is termed, has taken on a more threatening aspect, the local councils having refused to turn over any part of the school tax for the use of sectarian schools. To meet the case of these recalcitrant authorities a law was passed at the end of the parliamentary session of 1904, the "Local authority default act," which provides "that where the local authority fails to perform its duties as defined by the education law of 1902, the board of education may make orders for recognizing as managers of a school any persons who are acting as managers thereof, and may pay to the managers such amounts as are needed for the expenses of the school and charge the same as a debt due to the Crown from the local authorities." It is evident, however, that the board will be slow to adopt coercive measures, while on the other hand the local authorities may evade the charge of illegal action by "placing their refusal to aid the denominational schools upon the ground of insufficient staff, equipment, etc., which are recognized by the law of 1902 as sufficient reasons for refusing support." The present indications are that the law of 1902 will be substantially modified in the near future, or that the parochial schools through their inability to meet the

legal requirements as to staffing and equipments will gradually pass over to the control of the local authorities. To some extent this transfer has already taken place, as indicated by the fact that the 518 new public schools reported in 1903 comprised 28 schools that had been turned over to the councils by private managers. Of this number, 10 were Church of England schools and 3 Wesleyan. Since the report was rendered the tendency to such action has apparently increased.

In some districts the disturbance caused by the favor shown to parochial schools has interfered with school attendance, but the statistics show on the whole continued increase in the number of enrolled children. The total enrollment rose from 5,881,278 in 1901-2 to 5,975,127 in 1903. In 1890 the school enrollment was 16.3 per cent of the population; in 1902, 18 per cent (population census of 1901). The classification of the pupils by age periods (Table II, p. 806) shows that the increase in recent years (1900-1903) has been greatest in the group of children above 11 years of age, a result attributed to recent legislation. restricting more rigidly the employment of children (law of 1899)a and to the provisions of the education law of 1900 empowering local authorities to extend the upper limit of compulsory school attendance from the thirteenth to the fourteenth year of age.

The development of the compulsory principle in English school legislation is an impressive evidence of its importance, since in no country are parental authority and right of parental control more carefully guarded. The education law of 1870 gave optional power to school boards to make by-laws requiring the attendance at school of children of "not less than five nor more than thirteen years" of age. By reference to the chronological epitome of school legislation (p. 820) it will be seen that this permissive provision has been so extended by succeeding laws that local authorities are now required to make bylaws enforcing school attendance (laws of 1876 and 1880); the age for partial or total exemption from school attendance under local by-laws has been raised as to its lower limit from 11 to 12 years (law of 1899), the candidate for exemption being required to pass an examination in a grade not lower than the fourth (fixed by law of 1893); and local authorities are authorized to extend the upper limit of compulsory school attendance from the thirteenth to the fourteenth year of age (law of 1900). It is interesting to compare the gradual development of this policy in England with the early adoption of compulsion in Scotland. The law of 1872 organizing the present system of education in the northern division of the Kingdom made education compulsory for all children between the ages of 5 and 13; in 1883 the upper age limit was raised to 14. As in England, exemption from school attendance, partial or total, is allowed at 12 years of age under

By a clerical error the date of this law is given as 1889 instead of 1899 on page 806, near the foot.

certain conditions, but in Scotland applicants for exemption must be able to pass examination in the studies of the fifth grade (law of 1878, see pp. 820-821).

The statistics with respect to the teaching force in English elementary schools show a steady increase in the proportion of adult teachers. They formed 90 per cent of the entire force in 1899-1900 and 95 per cent in 1902-3. The increase in the proportion of certificated teachers is also noticeable. In 1876 they comprised 39 per cent of the entire body of teachers. In 1899 the proportion had risen to 50.9 per cent and in 1902-3 to 53.2 per cent.

The adjustment of teachers' salaries is one of the most serious problems with which the local councils have to deal. In London and other great industrial cities there is an actual dearth of teachers, attributed in the main to the superior salary inducements offered by other careers; in the rural districts the meager salaries offered, combined with certain limitations growing out of the relation of teachers to private managers (the majority of the rural schools are parochial), make it difficult to secure well-qualified teachers. The average salaries increase steadily, as shown in Table VII (p. 809), but the average is affected by the increase in the number of higher positions in the chief cities and conceals wide divergencies from a fair living income.

The current expenditure for elementary schools so far as reported amounted for the year 1902-3 to £16,462,456 ($82,312,280). Of this amount £6,243,692 ($31,218,460) was derived from local taxes, applicable at that time to public (board) schools only; £876,360 ($4,381,800) was derived from subscriptions (parochial schools chiefly), and £9,339,404 ($46,697,020) from Government grants.

The Government grants for elementary schools have been modified and augmented from time to time since 1870 in ways that make it difficult to convey a clear idea of the actual increase in this source of income. From Table IX (p. 810) it appears that what is called the annual grant, because the amount is annually determined, has increased tenfold. From 1870 to 1896 the greater part of this grant was distributed to the schools at a certain rate per capita of the pupils passing the Government examinations, but since that date at a certain rate per capita of average attendance. Estimated on the basis of average attendance the per capita rate has more than doubled. In 1870 it was equivalent to 9s. 7d., in 1876 to 13s. 2.8d., in 1890 to 17s. 10.6d., in 1900 to 21s., and in 1902 to 22s. The total Government grant for public elementary education amounted in 1902-3 to £9,339,404 ($46,697,020). This includes several grants besides the so-called annual grant, of which the principal are the fee grant (for schools remitting fees, law of 1891) and the special grant in aid of "voluntary schools' (law of 1897). These two laws indicated the growing interest of the Government in measures for the promotion of a system of free schools sup