globules are supplied with them, almost without exception. Just as there is a great resemblance between the seeds, roots, stems and leaves of plants, so do the microscopic germs develope themselves into sprouts and shoots which resemble those of many other microscopic plants.

Movements of the Chlorophyll Corpuscles in the Anucharis.-The following arithmetical calculation was communicated to Science Gossip by Mr. T. Simpson-He examined twelve leaves from one plant with these results :1. Leaves examined averaged in size 24ths of an inch in length, and 7ths of an inch in breadth. 2. Averaged 9,100 cells to each leaf. 3. 20 average cells examined in each leaf, averaged 23 chlorophyll granules to each cell. 4. Average of leaves examined shows therefore 209,300 chlorophyll granules to each leaf. At another time he examined six leaves from another plant, with slightly varying results:-1. 22ths of an inch by 8ths of an inch. 2. 9,750 cells to each leaf. 3. 22 granules to each cell. 4. 214,500 chlorophyll granules to each leaf.

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CHEMISTRY.

Alkaline Sulphides in Bleaching.-M. Tessié du Motay, so well-known for various processes in technical chemistry, has contributed a paper on the above subject to the Moniteur Scientifique for Dec. 1. He supposes that the alternate action of reducing and oxidising substances accelerates the bleaching of hemp, flax, and cotton, and the tissues made thereof, and that the strength of the fibre is less impaired by this process. The substances applied as reducing materials are the sulphides of barium or calcium mixed with some sulphide of sodium, and the oxidising substance is chlorine water.

Chemical Science in England.—As a proof either of the want of energy of the Secretaries of the Chemical Society, or of the absence of workers in chemistry in this country, we may mention the very singular fact that at a recent meeting of the Chemical Society there was actually not a single paper to be read, and the president had to get up some discussion in order to occupy the Fellows during the time of the séance.

How to prevent "Bumping."-In a recent number we gave an account of a process for the above purpose. The following method, described by Schumann in the American Journal of Pharmacy for November, is also of interest in this direction. In distilling acids and other liquids, he proceeds in the following manner :-The end of an ordinary glass pipe, of about oneeighth of an inch opening, is shut at one end, and this end bent into a little hook; the glass pipe is then cut exactly so long as to reach from the bottom of a glass retort to within half-inch or one inch of the stopper of the tubulus. By means of the hook and a piece of twine, or a little hook of thin wire, this glass pipe is placed into the retort, the open end at the bottom, and the retort can be filled, or the retort is filled first and the glass pipe entered afterwards. If the liquid is warmed, the air in the glass tube is expanded, and constantly bubbles out at the open end; and if the boiling-point is reached, vapours of the tension of the atmosphere are formed at the spot where the glass pipe stands on the bottom of the retort, and the boiling continues regularly and quietly.

The Fermentation of Glycerine.-M. Béchamp, who alleges that chalk contains organisms still alive, and which have lived since the chalk period, states that Herr Redtenbacher has been trying the effect of these in fermenting glycerine, and Mr. Béchamp has presented an account of his experiments to the French Academy. The following mixture was made :-Pure glycerine, 250 grms.; chalk, from Sens, full of well and lively-moving microzymas; hashed mutton, quite fresh, and previously washed with cold water, 30 grms.; cold water, 3,000 c.c. This mixture was kept at a temperature of from 35° to 40° for several months. The chief results obtained by the author are, that propionic, butyric, caproic, and valeric acids are formed most abundantly: among the gaseous products, carbonic acid, hydrogen, and nitrogen are found as result of this fermentation.

Chemistry and Geology.-At the meeting of the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh on November 24, Dr. Stevenson Macadam devoted his opening address, as president, to the above subjects, in their relation to each other. He asserted very strongly that geological phenomena-as pointed out often by Mr. David Forbes-cannot be interpreted without the aid of chemistry.

Ill Health of Dr. Anderson.-We regret to learn from the reports of the Highland and Agricultural Society that Dr. Anderson, the chemist to the Society, has been compelled through ill health to give up work for a while. It is satisfactory, however, to find that both the Society and the University of Glasgow have given him leave of absence.

Piperinic Acid and its Products of Oxidation are the subjects of a paper presented recently to the Göttingen Society of Sciences by Herr Fittig. Herr Fittig went into many details, and gave an account of the products of oxidation of piperinic acid, of piperonylic acid, of the action of nitric acid on these compounds, and of the relation of piperinic acid with bromine.

What the illuminating Power of Gas should be.-There are many of our readers who are interested in the practical chemical question, "What is good gas?" which the Chemical News asks in a recent issue. Giving abstract of a paper by Herr Schilling in the Journal für Gasbeleuchtung, the Chemical News states as follows:-A good and suitable gas for artificial illuminating ought to possess the following qualities:-(1) The gas ought to possess a normal illuminating power. The exact determination of the value of the normal illuminating power can only be obtained when the gas made from various qualities of coal, and manufactured according to rational principles, is compared, under exactly identical conditions, with the normal standard candle. Any gas which, by a combustion of five cubic feet per hour, exhibits a light equal to fifteen spermaceti candles, may be considered a gas of good illuminating power. (2) The gas should be absolutely free from sulphuretted hydrogen. (3) The pressure of the gas at the works and in the leading mains should, as a minimum, amount to from 0.8 to 10 of the water-pressure gauge.

Chloride of Gold in Crystals.-M. Debray publishes a fact of some interest as regards common chloride of gold. It is known that by heat this substance is first changed into chlorine, and the protochloride, and that then this product changes into chlorine and metallic gold. M. Debray, however, finds that if thin leaves of gold are heated in a current of chlorine to 200°

the chloride of gold, which begins to form on the gold below this temperature, is deposited in reddish long needle-shaped crystals, as voluminous as those of the volatile chlorides of molybdenum and tungsten, at some distance from the heated part.-Comptes rendus, Nov. 8.

Presence of Sodium Chloride in Sea-air.—It is not a novel fact that salt is present in sea-air, but the following remarks by M. G. d'Hercourt are based on some exact experiment:-From a series of observations made at Monaco, on the shores of the Mediterranean, M. Hercourt concludes that there is always on the sea-shores an atmosphere impregnated with saline particles; this layer of air has, at the above-named place, some 500 mètres' horizontal, and some 60 mètres' vertical extent. This impregnation of salt is due to what the author terms "pulverisation" of the sea-water by the breaking-up of the surf, and is not directly influenced either by barometric pressure, hygrometric state of the atmosphere, or its temperature. This hydro-mineral dust (poussière), as it is called by the author, is, unless there happen to exist near the coast physical obstacles in the shape of high mountains, carried far away inland, and is not to be confounded with what is of more coarse nature, and termed "spray," which is only quite local, and produced when a gale of wind blows. M. Hercourt states that, even on calm days in winter, the atmosphere near Monaco is, at least up to a height of 70 mètres and some few miles inland, impregnated with this hydromineral dust. There is no tide (rise or fall of water) perceptible in the sea alluded to.-See Les Mondes, Nov. 25, and Chemical News, Dec. 17.

Are there Chemical Atoms?-The Chemical Society made an effort, if not to decide the question, at least to obtain the opinion of its Fellows on the subject. At a meeting which was held on Nov. 4, and which was well attended-Sir B. Brodie in the chair-a very excellent discussion, opened by Dr. Williamson in the affirmative, took place upon the subject of the atomic theory. Those who opposed the atomic doctrine were the more numerous of the two. The "noes" seemed to carry the day. The names of the speakers were as follows: For the atomic theory, Dr. Williamson and Dr. W. Allen Miller; against it, Dr. Frankland, Dr. Odling, Dr. Mills, Sir Benjamin Brodie, and Professor Carey Foster; neutral, Dr. Tyndall.

Death of Professor Penny.-It was a very unhappy termination to the controversy respecting the claim of the late Professor Penny (Anderson's University), that of the death of this well-known labourer in the field of technical chemistry.

Estimation of the Ozone in the Atmosphere.—That the present methods of calculating the degree of ozone in the air are defective is proved by a paper lately read before the Philosophical Society of Manchester, by Mr. T. Mackereth. This gentleman made a series of yearly observations of ozone and wind-currents, and he constructed a number of tables. From them he concludes that the maximum of ozone development is coincident with the maximum of the horizontal movement of the air and of the fall of rain, and that the minimum of ozone occurred at the time of the minimum of the wind and rain-fall; and that in the summer months, when the horizontal movement of the air was at its minimum, ozone development was at its minimum too, thus proving that the existing plan of dividing ozone is open to fallacy.

The Chemistry of the process of ripening in the Grape.-At the meeting of the French Academy on Oct. 4, M. Petit sent in a memoir on the chemical phenomena of the process of ripening in the grape. The juice of the green grape contains 36 to 37 grammes of acid per litre; that of the ripe fruit 5 grammes only; and these acids have not during the process of ripening become united to bases-they have actually disappeared. The leaves of the vine contain from 13 to 16 grammes of acid per kilogramme; and, moreover, they are richer in acid in proportion as the grape is less ripe and the leaves are more green.

10

On Orthoxylol.—A very important paper, though one of not much interest to the general scientific reader, was lately published in the Report of the Göttingen Society of Sciences (Scientific Opinion, Nov. 10), by Herr Fittig. By introducing an atom of methyl into dimethylbenzol the modification of trimethylbenzol called pseudo-cumol is obtained. Pseudo-cumol oxidised by weak nitric acid yields simultaneously two isomeric monobasic acids CHO, which the author has named xylic and paraxylic acids. These two acids can only be different because out of the three atoms of methyl contained in pseudo-cumol, the one changed into carboxyl in the formation of xylic acid is quite different from the one changed into carboxyl when paraxylic acid is formed. This was shown to be so in this way: By decomposing xylic acid by heating it with caustic lime at a relatively low temperature, isoxylol is obtained. Paraxylic acid treated in the same way yields a new hydrocarbon orthoxylol C.II10, which differs from isoxylol and from methyltoluol. Paraxylic acid is only decomposed at an extraordinary high temperature, but the reaction goes on well, and after one rectification the distilled carbide is pure. It boils constantly at 140° to 141°, three degrees higher than isoxylol, and possesses an odour quite different from isoxylol or methyltoluol and much less agreeable. Unlike the case with isoxylol and methyltoluol it is very difficult to obtain stable nitro-compounds from orthoxylol by treatment with nitric and sulphuric acids. Dilute hydrochloric acid slowly oxidizes orthoxylol, and gives a volatile acid isomeric with toluylic acid. A mixture of chromate of potassium and sulphuric acid slowly oxidizes it.

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A new Opium Alkaloid has been obtained in the course of some recent researches by Dr. Matthiessen of St. Bartholomew's Hospital. It is obtained from papaverine, and it is, we believe, a very powerful narcotic which almost rivals morphia.

The Chemistry of the Blast-furnace is the title of a good paper by Mr. Charles Schinz in the Chemical News of Oct. 29.

A Test for Albumen.-The following is given by M. Mehu, in the Revue hebdomadaire :-Take of crystallised carbolic acid, one part by weight; of commercial acetic acid, the same quantity; of alcohol, at 90 per cent., two parts; mix, and keep in a bottle. This fluid is intended to detect albumen in urine; and for that purpose, to 100 grms. of this liquid (urine) are added .2 c.c. of commercial nitric acid, and next, after thorough mixing, 10 c.c. of the carbolic acid solution. The reaction is stated to be very superior to the use of nitric acid alone.

What may be obtained from raw Spirits by Distillation.-A very useful practical paper on this subject, and one which is highly suggestive to

those who are engaged in testing the physiological properties of alcohol, was read lately before the Chemical Society of Berlin by Herren Kramer and Pinner. These chemists had an opportunity of investigating the different products which, by the distillation of spirits that is to say, the manufacture thereof-from grain, are formed, and can be separately collected, owing to the perfection of the rectifying apparatus in use, on the large scale. Among these substances are prominent-aldehyde, acetal, propyl-alcohol, butyl-alcohol, acetic ether, fusel oil, and a mixture of different substances.

The rapid separation of Silver and Copper Nitrates.—An abstract of a paper by Dr. Palment is given as follows in the Chemical News for Oct. 22: The author had to prepare nitrate of silver from small silver coins which contained a large percentage of copper. The alloy is dissolved in nitric acid; the solution is filtered if necessary, and evaporated until it has the consistency of a thickish oil; when this point is reached there is added to the solution very concentrated nitric acid free from HCl. By this proceeding all the nitrate of silver is precipitated, while nitrate of copper remains in solution. One part of the concentrated metallic solution requires from three to four parts of nitric acid for the complete precipitation of the nitrate of silver; the more concentrated the nitric acid is the better, but acid of 1·250 specific gravity answers the purpose. The solution of copper is decanted off, and the nitrate of silver washed with nitric acid.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The Concentric Structure of Granitic Rocks.—In the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History for 1869, Mr. N. S. Shaler has published a paper on this subject. Concentric lamellation differs widely from the common features of cleavage in rocks, inasmuch as, however complicated and distorted the cleavage system may be, it is always reducible to sets of planes crossing each other-if there be more than one such system-but never producing systems of curves, which are the essential feature in these fractures. This much, says Mr. Shaler, is readily seen upon the exterior of any mass characterised by this structure. Upon examining, where it has proved possible, the internal features, the interesting fact became evident that the concentric arrangement was confined to the external portions of the mass, never being discernible at a greater depth than four or five feet-rarely, indeed, below three feet-from the surface. This determination has been made from the examination of a very few sections, which were fitted for the purpose, inasmuch as, according to the author, it is by no means easy to find quarries which give sufficiently extensive sections to admit of the study of such features, which cannot be well examined in a small sectional area.

Hypsilophodon is the name given to a new genus of Dinosauria, described by Professor Huxley at the meeting of the Geological Society on November 10. The specimen on which the genus is founded was obtained by the Rev. W. Fox from the Wealden at Cowleaze Chine, in the Isle of Wight.