SAN-JOAQUIN, a river in California, which rises in Tulares Lake and the Sierra Nevada, flows first north-west through a fine valley into open plains, then south-west for about 30 miles, and inclining gradually north joins the Sacramento, after a total course of above 300 miles. It is navigable for a considerable distance by vessels of 9 feet draught, and abounds with salmon and other fish.

SAN JOSE DEL INTERIOR, a town of Central America, capital of the state of Costa Rica, 15 miles W.N.W. of Cartago, the former capital. It stands on a table-land 4500 feet above the sea-level. Though comparatively recent in its origin, having sprung up since the independence of this region, it has a number of important institutions, including a university, and has succeeded to the importance and commercial activity of Cartago. Pop. 20,000.

SAN JUAN BOUNDARY QUESTION. Between the south-eastern extremity of the British possession of Vancouver's Island and the coast of the North American continent, which here belongs to the United States, is situated a group of islets, of which the largest, San Juan, lies in mid-channel. In the year 1846 it was provided by the Treaty of Washington, of date 15th June, that the line of the 49th parallel of latitude should form the boundary line between British North America and the United States, as far as the coast of the Pacific, which line should be continued to the middle of the channel which separates the continent from Vancouver's Island, and thence in a southerly direction through the middle of the said channel and of Fuca Straits to the Pacific Ocean. No regard was paid by the negotiators to the fact-possibly they were ignorant of it-that the Island of San Juan lay in the middle of the channel thus defined, and consequently the question immediately arose to whom this island should belong. The English contended that the Rosario Straits, between San Juan and the continent, must have been intended; while the Americans held that the Haro Strait, between San Juan and Vancouver, was really meant. It was obvious, however, to impartial observers that neither party could be strictly in the right, as the actual state of facts was not found to correspond with that assumed by the negotiators, and to effect a compromise would have been the wisest course under the circumstances. Each party was, however, intent on maintaining that their interpretation was the right one, and the matter might still have remained an open question had it not been for the occurrence of certain events which precipitated a decision. In 1855 the legislature of Washington Territory included the Island of San Juan in Whatcom county, and levied taxes in it. These taxes were refused, and the sheriff of the county seized sheep enough to satisfy the demand. The affair blew over for a while; but in 1859 General Harney, a United States officer, occupied San Juan with an armed force, with a view to resist the intended arrest of an American citizen by a civil officer of the British government. This proceeding very nearly led to a war between the two nations; but matters were finally arranged, and a joint occupation of the island was agreed upon as a way out of the difficulty. The dispute, however, was again renewed after the colonization of Vancouver's Island and of British Columbia on the mainland opposite, rendered the position one of importance, as it was apprehended on the part of Great Britain that the possession of San Juan by the Americans would seriously menace the capital of Vancouver's Island, and interfere with our maritime traffic within the channel; while the Americans were, naturally enough, equally anxious to secure such an advantage. In order to have the matter finally settled, it was agreed by an article in the

Treaty of 1871, signed at Washington, that the matter in dispute should be submitted to the arbitration of the Emperor William of Germany without appeal. This was accordingly done, and the empe ror's award, dated October 21, 1872, was given unreservedly in favour of the American claim, on the ground that the American view was conceived to be most in accordance with the terms of the treaty of 1846. The matter has been thus finally settled. It is to be regretted that in framing the Washington Treaty the question submitted to arbitration was not the true question, a decision of which would have brought out the nearest approximation to justice for both sides, and that the sole power conferred on the referee was to determine between Haro Strait and Rosario Strait. The existence of a third channel between the two already mentioned rendered it an easy matter to bring about an equitable settlement of the question; but the negotiators of the treaty ignored this, and the British by asking too much ended by getting nothing.

SAN JUAN DE LA FRONTERA, a frontier and western province of the Argentine Republic (La Plata), South America, mostly between lat. 30° and 32° s., and lon. 68° and 70° w. It is bounded on the west by the Andes, north by the department of Rioja, and south by the department of Mendoza. Area, 18,864 square miles; pop. 60,319. The climate is for the most part mild and agreeable, and the country is well watered and very fertile. It contains rich gold and silver mines. In the south-east of the province is the large Lake of Guanacache. Its capital is a town of the same name, with a pop. of 8353 inhabitants.

SANKHYA (Sanscrit, numeral or rational) is the name given to the chief of the six philosophical schools of India. It professes to teach the means by which eternal happiness, or complete exemption from all evil, may be attained. The Sankhya,' says Dr. Ballantyne, 'makes a step in advance of the Nyaya, by reducing the external from the category of substance to that of quality. Souls alone are in the Sankhya regarded as substances; whatever affects the soul being arranged under the head of a quality, pleasing, displeasing, or indifferent.' The true prin ciples of all existence, and a discriminative knowledge of which is necessary to the attainment of perfect beatitude, are twenty-five in number: 1. nature, or the secret and all powerful principle of universal life; 2, intelligence; 3, consciousness; 4-8, the five subtle elements, namely, light, sound, taste, odour, and tangibility, which are productive of the five gross elements (20-24); 9-13, the five organs of sensa tion, sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch; 14-18, the five instruments of action, the voice, the hands, the feet, and the genital and excretory organs; 19, the manas or intellect, the function of which is to communicate to the consciousness the data of the senses, and to bear its orders to the instruments of action to be executed; 20-24, the five gross elements, ether, air, light, water, and earth; and lastly, 25, the soul, which knows and judges all the rest. Nature consists essentially in the primordial principle which animates and sustains everything. It develops itself in the twenty-three principles which follow it, and which, in a certain sense, are but the expansion of it. The totality of these twenty-three principles forms the world or creation, destined one day to be destroyed, or rather to re-enter into the bosom of nature, whence, however, it will come forth again. Nature is eternal and uncreated, having neither beginning nor end, and is the creator of everything that is perceptible to the senses. It first produces intelligence, which in its turn produces consciousness; and consciousness produces the principles which follow it.

These secondary principles, it will thus be seen, are both producing and produced; while nature, though producing, is itself unproduced. Outside of these categories the soul, like nature eternal, is like it also unproduced; though, unlike nature, the soul is unproductive. The whole twenty-five principles are thus reduced to two co-eternal principles-nature and soul. The soul is independent of nature, in respect of not being produced by it; it is superior to it also in the sense that nature is blind, and that the soul is intelligent. But without nature the soul could not attain the end of its pursuit in the world, that is, eternal salvation. The soul must study nature, in order to be able to distinguish itself accurately from nature. Without nature, which continually invites it to action, the soul, which is of itself incapable of action, would continue in a state of eternal inertia. Nature is made to be known, the soul is made to know; and in this reciprocal exchange of services, if the apparent activity is on the side of nature, the real activity, the activity of science and thought, is on the side of the soul. The union of the two is like 'the union of the halt and the blind for conveyance and for guidance, the one bearing and directed, the other borne and directing.' When once the soul knows nature the union ceases; nature known has no longer any attraction for the soul. When its thousand transformations and illusions are penetrated by science, the soul henceforth knowing itself and knowing what nature actually is has nothing more to learn, and all the conditions of eternal salvation are fulfilled for it. Reunited to the body which it animates it may still live in this world a short time longer, until the perishable body is dissolved and absorbed by the gross elements of which it had been formed. When death comes the soul, freed from the material bonds of the body, freed also from the still more formidable bonds of ignorance, enters into eternal beatitude. This beatitude, with regard to which Kapila, the reputed author of this system of philosophy, does not express himself in very precise terms, consists above all in being absolved from the necessity of being reborn. The soul when once it has been redeemed by science, and so enabled to distinguish itself from all that is not itself, no longer stands in any danger of being reborn into any of the grades into which the scale of being is divided. There are in all fourteen such degrees from Brahma, the greatest of the gods, down to the inert stone. Five of these are below the level of man, and comprise various organic and inorganic, animate and inanimate beings. Man forms a class by himself. Above him is the superior world, in which there are eight degrees, from the least powerful of the genii to the highest order of the gods. The soul is capable of passing successively through these fourteen stages, ascending or descending in the scale of beings according as he has been virtuous and wise, or ignorant and depraved. But in all these transformations from the lowest to the highest the soul is always subject to the law of transmigration, from the operation of which not even the gods are exempt. Science only, and science as taught by the school of the Sankhya, can exempt it from this terrible yoke; science being the instrument and condition of salvation.

The Sankhya has been charged with being atheistic, since it seems to deny by implication the existence of a supreme being, who created nature and soul, and who rules the universe. The charge, however, has been repelled, on the ground that the Sankhya merely maintains that there is no proof for the existence of such a being. "The Sankhya,' says Mr. J. C. Thomson, 'is divided into three classes:1. The pure Sankhya (above considered), which, if it admits, does not mention a deity or supreme being;

749

but considers the material essence as the plastic principle of all things, and is therefore called nirishwara or atheistical. Its text-books are the Sankhyapravachana and the Tattwa-samasa, both attributed to Kapila, and the Sankhya-kārikā, attributed to his disciple Ishwara Krishna. 2. The Yoga system, called seshwara or theistical, founded by Pantanjali, whose Yoga-sutras are its text-book, and followed by the author of Bhagavad Gitā. 3. The Puranic school, a corrupt mixture of the other two.' The pure Sankhya is reputed to have been founded by Kapila, who is asserted to have been a son of Brahma; and his system is considered more ancient than Buddhism, which is referred to the sixth century B.C. The Sankhya doctrine is ably summarized in the Sankhya-kärikā, edited by H. H. Wilson, with an English translation by H. T. Colebrooke (Oxford, 1837). See also Leçons de Cousin, Cours de 1829, and H. T. Colebrooke's essay on the subject, in his Miscellaneous Essays.

SANLUCAR-DE-BARRAMEDA, a seaport of Spain in Andalusia, at the mouth of the Guadalquivir, in a sandy, treeless district, 18 miles north of Cadiz. It is a dull and decaying, though well-built place, with broad, straight, and indifferently-paved streets. The principal buildings are a parish and two auxiliary churches, a town-house, prison, and two hospitals. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in agriculture and fishing, and there is some trade in an excellent wine called mansanilla the produce of the district. Sanlucar is of some celebrity in the annals of navigation as the starting-point of Columbus in his third voyage in 1498, and Magellan in his first voyage in 1519. Pop. 18,130.

SAN LUIS DE POTOSI, a city of Mexico, capital of the department of same name, 92 miles south-east of Zacatecas, 6350 feet above sea-level, regularly laid out and well built, with spacious and well-kept streets. It has six handsome churches, three convents, and an hospital; manufactures of clothing, shoes, hats, and different articles of iron are carried on to a considerable extent; and there is some trade with the neighbouring departments in the above manufactures, and in foreign imports, consisting of brandy, wine, silks, woollens, cottons, and hardwares. Pop. (1869), 33,581.

SAN MARINO. See MARINO.

SAN MINATO, a town of Italy, in the province of Florence, 21 miles w.s.w. of the city of Florence, on the Arno. It has a cathedral, and is adorned with many interesting monuments. It is famous in the history of the Florentine Republic, and is the ori ginal seat of the Bonaparte family. Pop. of town (1871), 2213; commune, 16,187.

SANNAZARO, JACOPO, a distinguished Italian poet who wrote both in Latin and Italian, was born at Naples in 1458. He received his education in the school of Giuniano Maggo and the academy of Pontanus, in which, according to the custom in the Italian academies, he adopted the name of Attius Sincerus. An early passion for Carmosina Bonifacia, whose praises he sung under the names of Harmosina and Phillis, unfolded his poetical talents. In the hope of conquering his unreciprocated love by separation he went abroad; but yielding to the impatience of his passion returned to Naples, where he found his mistress dead. During his absence he wrote his Arcadia, a series of idyls, which, although like his other Italian poems, the work of his youth, still retains its reputation. His poetry attracted the notice of King Ferdinand and his sons Alphonso and Frederick, who made him the companion of their journeys and campaigns. Frederick, who ascended the throne in 1496, gave him the delightful villa of Mergellina, with a pension of 600 ducats. But in

750

1501 his benefactor was obliged to abdicate the throne and flee to France, and Sannazaro was too faithful to desert him in his reverses. After the death of Frederick he returned to Naples, and died there in 1533. He was buried in the church of Santa Maria del Parto, which he had built at his villa. Sannazaro wrote sonnets and canzoni in Italian, several Latin poems, elegies, eclogues, epigrams, and a longer poem, De Partu Virginis, in three books. His elegance of expression, no less than the poetical beauty of his thoughts, gave him a distinguished place among the modern Latin poets.

The

SANQUHAR, a parliamentary and municipal borough in Dumfriesshire, Scotland, 24 miles N.N.W. of Dumfries, in the hollow of a parallel range of hills of no great elevation, a short distance from the Nith. It consists of one extremely irregular street. houses are in general well built of freestone obtained in the neighbourhood. There are Established, Free, and other churches. There is here a carpet-factory; but the chief employments are hand-loom weaving and muslin-flowering, the latter by females. It unites with Dumfries, &c., in sending a member to Parliament. Pop. (1871), 1324. Sanquhar was made a burgh of barony by charter in 1484, previously to which, according to the charter, it had been a burgh of the same kind from time immemorial.

SAN REMO. See REMO (SAN).

SAN SALVADOR, a republic in Central America, bounded north and north-east by Honduras; northwest by Guatemala, from which it is separated by the Rio Paza; east by Nicaragua; south-east by the Bay of Conchagua or Fonseca; and south by the Pacific Ocean; area about 7500 square miles. Its coast-line, which extends nearly 150 miles, is deeply indented, particularly in the south-east, and furnishes several good harbours, of which the most frequented are La Union, within the Bay of Conchagua; the roadstead of Libertad, and Acajutla or Sonsonate. The surface from the shore north for about 15 miles is moderately low and level; but it shortly after becomes broken and rugged, and is traversed by mountain masses in distinct groups, giving it a wild appearance. This is increased by no fewer than five volcanoes, which may be considered the distinguishing features of the state. The most active is Yzalco, but the loftiest are San Vicente and San Salvador, each about 9000 feet high. The inequality of surface produces a considerable variety of climate, which inclines to cold in the higher, and becomes excessively warm in the lower districts near the coast; but taken as a whole is very healthy. The largest river is the Lempa, which, issuing from the Lake of Guija, flows south-east, forming part of the boundary between Salvador and Honduras. Other streams, though generally of small dimensions, are both large and numerous enough to furnish the means of irrigation, and thus dispense fertility in all directions. The most important and next in magnitude to the Lempa, are the Paza and the Sirama or San Miguel. Beside Lake Guija already mentioned, which is about 15 miles long by 5 miles broad, there is another called the Ylspango, 5 miles east of the town of San Salvador, 9 miles long by 3 miles broad. Numerous mineral and thermal springs occur in many quarters. The soil possesses great fertility, and the whole state was one of the best cultivated in Central America, till cruel discord broke out, and among other devastating effects threw large tracts out of cultivation. The most important crop is indigo, which is generally grown, and is both abundant and of excellent quality. Maize, sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton, &c., thrive well, but wheat does not succeed except in a few places; and fruits, though by no means deficient, are neither so various nor so abundant as in the state of Guate

mala. Cattle of a fine race, and hogs and poultry are numerous, but sheep are few and very indifferent. The dairy produce is chiefly confined to cheese of very ordinary quality, which forms one main article of subsistence; on some estates, particularly near the coast, a rich and excellent cream-cheese is made. The mineral deposits, once supposed to form the chief wealth of the state, appear to be very much exhausted. Gold and silver are still extracted, but the returns are not understood to be very profitable. Iron of excellent quality exists, and is worked to some extent; it is admirably adapted for being converted into fine steel, and is said to resemble in this respect the celebrated wootz of India. The part of the coast between Acajutla and Libertad is famous for producing the article known in commerce as the balsam of Peru, of which from 15,000 lbs. to 20,000 lbs. weight are annually obtained. Another tree of almost equal value with the balsam is the cedar; large quantities are annually cut for timber. In 1873 the value of imports was estimated at £420,643, and that of exports at £675,343, more than half of which was for indigo alone. In the same year thirty-seven steamers and twenty-four sailing vessels entered the ports of the republic. The population is made up of whites (of Spanish descent), Spanish-speaking Indians, Ladinos (a mixed race of whites and Indians), negroes, and mulattos. Roman Catholicism is the religion established in the state. The government is carried on by a president, vice-president, and three ministers. There is a congress of two houses, a senate of twelve members, and a house of representatives of twenty-four. For administrative purposes the state is divided into eight districts, called San Miguel, San Vicente, San Salvador, Santa Ana, Sonsonate, La Paz, Cuscatlan, and Chalatenango. The inhabitants had long the reputation of being the most industrious in Central America, and the state, in proportion to its size, is still the most densely peopled. Pop. 600,000. San Salvador (originally called Cuscallan) was taken possession of by Pedro de Alvarado, a lieutenant of Cortes, after a long and obstinate resistance, and remained under Spanish rule until 1821, when it asserted its independence, and joined the Mexican Confederation. In 1823, however, it seceded from the confederation, and subsequently formed part of the Republic of Central America, In 1853 it became an independent republic. The progress of San Salvador, like that of the other Spanish-American republics, has been much hindered by internal dissensions, revolutions, and counterrevolutions following each other without end. It has also had wars with its neighbours at various times, but these we need not enter upon.

SAN SALVADOR, a town in Central America, capital of the state and near the southern base of the volcano of same name. It was founded in 1528 by Jorge de Alvarado, about 6 miles north of its present site, to which it was removed in 1539. Under the Spaniards it was the capital of a province, and after their expulsion the capital of the Republic of Central America. When this confederation was broken up it became, as it continues to be, the capital of the independent state of San Salvador. In 1853 it contained about 30,000 inhabitants, and had nine churches, one of them a large and beautiful cathedral, a university, a female seminary, several hospitals, and an active trade. In the night of 16th April, 1854, it was so completely overthrown by an earthquake, that the government laid out a new city under the name of Nuevo San Salvador, 10 miles nearer the sea; so many of the inhabitants, however, chose to remain and rebuild their ruined houses, that the old city was formally reinstated as the seat of government. Pop. 20,000. ̧

SANS-CULOTTES (French, 'without breeches'), the name given in derision to the Jacobins or popular party by the aristocratical in the beginning of the French revolution of 1789. Like the epithet gueux (which see) bestowed on the patriot party in the Netherlands, and like that of Methodists bestowed on the friends of Wesley, it was adopted by those to whom it was first applied by way of contempt. At the time when the most exaggerated principles of democracy prevailed sans-culottism became a term of honour. In the French republican calendar the jours complémentaires were at first called jours sans-culottides. See CALENDAR.

SAN SEBASTIAN, a city and seaport of Spain, capital of the province of Guipuzcoa, on the side of Mount Urgull, at the extremity of a low sandy tongue of land, washed on the east by the Urumea, here crossed by a bridge, and on the north and west by the Bay of Biscay, and attached to the mainland only on the south by a narrow isthmus, 42 miles N.N.W. of Pampeluna. It is a place of great strength both by nature and art, being surrounded by walls, washed by the sea, though partly left dry at low water, and otherwise defended, both by outworks and by the castle of Mota, placed at an elevation of about 430 feet on the summit of Urgull. It is built in the form of an irregular pentagon, and having been nearly destroyed by a conflagration in 1813, when it was taken by the British, consists for the most part of modern houses, arranged with considerable regularity in spacious streets and squares. The more important public buildings are the parish churches of San Maria and San Vicente, a nunnery, a suppressed monastery, now converted into an arsenal; a handsome court-house with a Doric portico, navigation, commercial, and elementary schools, public baths, barracks, theatre, and civil and military hospitals. The manufactures consist chiefly of cordage, stained paper, beer, leather, candles, and soap. The harbour is small, exposed, and difficult of access, and the trade, once important, has greatly decayed. Its principal articles are imports of colonial produce and salt-fish. San Sebastian is a place of considerable antiquity, and having by its early fortification become the key of Spain on the side of France figures much in all the wars between the two countries. Of the numerous sieges to which it has been subjected the most celebrated, and at the same time the most disastrous, was that of 1813, when, being in possession of the French, it was stormed by the British with a loss of about 5000 in killed and wounded. The greater part of the town was laid in ashes, it having been set on fire by the French in order to annoy the British. Pop. 14,111.

SAN SEVERINO, a town of Central Italy, in the province of Macerata, and 14 miles w.s.w. of the town of Macerata, on the right bank of the Potenza. It is the see of a bishop, with monasteries and nunneries. The vicinity produces good wine, oil, and fruit. Pop. 4400.

SAN SEVERO, a town of Southern Italy, in the province of Foggia, 39 miles E.N.E. of Campobasso. It is a large and tolerably well-built town; and contains a cathedral, three parish churches, four monasteries, a nunnery, seminary, and hospital. In 1053 Robert Guiscard gained a signal victory here over Pope St. Leo, who was taken prisoner. Pop. (1871), 17,124.

SANSKRIT LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. Language.-Sanskrit is the name given to the learned and classical language of the Hindus, the language in which most of their vast literature is written, but which has not been a living and spoken language since about the second century before Christ. It is one of the Aryan or Indo-European

751

languages (see INDO-EUROPEAN), and may be described as an elder sister of the Greek, Latin, Persian, Slavonic, Teutonic, and Celtic tongues. It is, accordingly, allied to most of the modern European languages, including the English, German, Danish, Dutch, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Walachian, and Russian. The name Sanskrit, from sam, with, and krita, made, means carefully constructed or symmetrically formed, and was given to the language to distinguish it from the vernacular dialects, which were called Prakrit, that is, common or natural. It is probable that Sanskrit, in its more highly elaborated form, was never spoken by any great body of the people. At any rate we find very early that while Sanskrit was employed exclusively for literary and sacred purposes the mass of the people spoke Prākṛit dialects, which dialects were the ancestors of most of the dialects spoken in Upper India at the present day. Sanskrit, therefore, stands in the same relation to the modern Aryan dialects of India as Latin stands in to the Romance languages.

The alphabet in which Sanskrit is written is called the Nagari, or Deva-Nāgari (divine or royal city). Various forms of this alphabet exist, the earliest dating from several centuries before Christ, but the one now used cannot be traced farther back than to a period several centuries after Christ. The DevaNagari alphabet is a most complete and philosophically constructed alphabet, and in these respects offers a strong contrast to our own, which is so ill adapted to the various sounds it is called upon to express. Every letter in Sanskrit has one invariable sound. There are in all fourteen vowels and thirtythree simple consonants, besides a nasal symbol and a symbol for a final aspirate. All the vowels except short a are represented by two characters, one used when the vowel begins a word, the other in all other cases. Sanskrit is read from left to right. The letters, in their dictionary order, with their Indo-Romanic equivalents and their pronunciation, exemplified by English words, are shown in the following table (see Professor Monier Williams's Sanskrit-English Dictionary). In it long a, u, and i are represented by ā, u, and i, but in articles in the present work the long sound has sometimes been represented by a circumflex or an acute accent:

ज

ट

th

as n in sink, sing.

as ch in church.

as chh in church-hill.

as j in jet.

as dgch in hedgehog.

as n in singe.

dh

as dh in red-haired.

ण

त

t

as th in nut-hook (more dental).

as d in dice (more like th in this). as dh in adhere (but more dental).

as n in not, nut.

ph as ph in uphill.

b

bh

m

as b in bear, rub.

as bh in abhor.

as m in map, jam.

The vowel a is written only at the beginning of a word, and in other cases is left unwritten, as it is understood to be a regular appendage to every consonant, and unless one of the other vowels takes its place is pronounced as a matter of course. Accordingly such a word as nagara is expressed by means of the three consonants ngr alone. When several consonants come together without a or any other vowel between them they are joined together into one character, and thus form a compound or conjunct consonant. In this way Sanskrit possesses 400 or 500 distinct characters. Generally speaking, we can trace in these compound consonants the original elements of which they are formed, but in some the elementary letters are quite obscured. The vowels e and i, when not initial, are written above the consonant after which they are pronounced, while u, u, ri, ri, lri and Iri when not initial are written below the consonant after which they are pronounced; and i, when not initial, strange to say, is always written before the consonant after which it is pronounced. R when not initial, and coming before a consonant in a word, is written in the form of a small semicircle above the consonant.

Sanskrit displays a remarkable fondness for what are usually termed euphonic changes of letters, such changes, for example, as are exhibited in the Latin rexi for regsi, from rego; traxi for trahsi, from trako; appellatus for adpellatus; or in the Greek sumballo, from sun and ballō; plechthēnai for plekthenai, from plekō; grabden for graphdën, from graphō; pepeismenos for pepeithmenos, from peithō; &c. This kind of letterchange is carried, however, to a far greater extent in Sanskrit, and is applied not only in uniting parts of a word together but in combining complete words into sentences. Thus the Latin phrase, Rara avis in terris,' if it were Sanskrit, would become, by the laws of Sandhi, or combination, 'Raravir ins terrih,' or might take the shape of a single word, 'Rarāvirinsterrih' (M. Williams). It would be out of place to give anything like an exposition of the rules of Sandhi here, but we may present the reader with a few examples:-Iita+upadeśa=hitopadesa, goodly instruction; alpa +ojas = alpaujas, little energy; ta +idānim =twidānīm, but now; bit + maya = binmaya, formed of intellect; bhayat lobhāt ća – bhayal lobhać ća, from fear and avarice; tat + śrutiã = tać chrutwa, having heard that; kasmin +ćit = kasminscit, in a certain person; or to take an example or two from the inflection of verbs: rać + si = vakshi, dah+tāsmi= dagdhasmi, lih + dhi = lidhi, &c.

=

h symbol for final aspirate.

All the above letters may be referred to one or other of the five classes of gutturals, palatals, cerebrals or linguals, dentals, and labials, according to the organ principally concerned in their pronunciation, whether the throat, the palate, the upper part of the palate (cerebrals), the teeth, or the lips, and may also be divided into 'hard' and 'soft, according as the

of words and the facility with which it can be carried out. To quote Professor Whitney: 'As regards the etymological part of grammar the distinguishing characteristic of Sanskrit is-beside the great attluence of forms and the unlimited facility of forming new derivatives and new compounds-its remarkable preservation of original materials and processes, the great regularity and consequent transparency of its formative methods. In most words there is no diffi culty in distinguishing from each other root, affix, and termination, and in recognizing the original form