tianity, the Saxons, or English, as they may be called, became much addicted to sacred things, and superstitious observances. Then commenced a fondness for monastic life. Not only the clergy, but great numbers of laymen of the highest ranks, were infected with this spirit; and among the Anglo-Saxons, not less than ten kings and eleven queens, and nobles without number, abandoned the world and retired into monasteries. The clergy favored this spirit; and used every art of persuasion to induce them to build or enter monasteries, as the sure means of procuring the pardon of their sins. At one time they raised an alarm that the end of the world and the day of judgment were at hand, and by this means procured many donations to the church.

64. Pilgrimages and relics. The Saxons placed much dependence on the merit of pilgrimages to Rome and Jerusalem. These pilgrimages were enjoined upon them as most satisfactory penances for crimes, and as acceptable services to God. Few persons could die in peace, till they had kissed the pope's toe. Kings, queens, nobles, prelates, monks, nuns, saints and sinners, wise men and fools, undertook journeys to Rome, which was thronged with pilgrims. To this superstition was added a great veneration for the relics of saints; and old rags, decayed bones, and rusty nails, were coveted and admired; they were sent as presents by princes to each other, and preserved in churches as inestimable treasures; they were even deposited in caskets adorned with gold. Men would steal and rob to obtain the pretended little finger of a saint.

65. Love of music. The religion of the Saxons and Danes, after popery was established, consisted chiefly in superstitious rites, pilgrimages, penances, donations to the church, and a rage for relics. Among the religious services was the performance of psalmody, or singing, in cathedrals and monasteries. This fondness for music was much increased by the introduction of organs, in the ninth century. Even private devotions consisted chiefly in singing; the singing of a great number of psalms being considered as an atonement for sins. All kinds of penances might be redeemed by singing a

number of psalms and pater-nosters. A penitent, condemned to fast a number of days, might redeem them by singing six pater-nosters and the hundred and nineteenth psalm six times over for one day's fast. Such was the false piety of that ignorant and miserable age. 66. Vices. Among the Saxons, the predominant vices and crimes were murder, theft, perjury, bribery, oppression of the poor, and intemperance in eating and drinking. Gluttony and drunkenness were the common vices of all ranks. Whole nights were often spent in feasting, revelry and drunkenness. This was the case even in their religious festivals. These vices, originating among uncivilized people, were the corrupting fountains from which have flowed similar vices in modern times. Witchcraft, sorcery and divination were common among all classes of the Saxons.

67. Virtues. Among the Germans, hospitality_was universal, and this continued among the Saxons in England. The English kings spent a great part of their revenues in entertaining strangers, and their own nobility and clergy; and the nobles imitated their sovereigns. Monasteries were, in a degree, public houses, where strangers were lodged and entertained. In Germany, chastity and fidelity in marriage were observed with remarkable strictness. But before the Norman conquest, these virtues were almost lost.

68. Dress. Among the Saxons and Danes, handsome hair was esteemed a great ornament. Before marriage, females left their hair to flow in ringlets, but after marriage, it was cut shorter, tied up and covered with some kind of head-dress. The clergy, regular and secular, were obliged to shave the crown of the head, and keep their hair short. The shape of this clerical tonsure, which among the English was circular, but among the Scots semicircular, was the subject of grave and long debates, between the clergy of the two nations. The English wore shirts of linen; over which they wore a tunic, reaching to the middle of the thighs; some with sleeves, some without them. They also wore breeches, or trowsers. About their bodies, they wore belts in which were stuck their swords. The common

people, and originally the clergy wore no stockings; but afterwards the legs were covered with cloth, fastened with bandages. They also wore mantles, reaching hardly to the knee. In the ninth century, the greatest princes wore wooden shoes; the soles being of wood, and the upper part, of leather, tied with thongs.

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QUESTIONS.

37. Who were the ancestors of the English? What is the meaning of the word England?

38. Who conquered Britain? Why were the Saxons invited to England, and when did they first arrive?

39. Why did the Saxons remain in England?

40. Were the Britons alarmed at the settlement of the Saxons in England?

41. Did the Britons resist the Saxons?

42. Who were the Saxon chiefs? Who conquered England? 43. Who founded the kingdom of Sussex?

44. Who founded the kingdom of Wessex?

45. Who founded other kingdoms in England? How many kingdoms did the Saxons found in England? What were they called? Who first united the kingdoms of the Saxons?

46. What nations invaded England after the Saxons? Who was the most illustrious defender of the kingdom?

47. What stratagem did Alfred use to defeat the Danes? 48. When and how was England conquered by the Danes? 49. Give an account of Harold and Hardicanute?

50. When did the Normans conquer England, and who was the conquering chief?

51. State what were the revolutions in England? Who were the ancestors of the English?

52. When was the Christian religion introduced into England? How did the Saxons treat Christianity?

53. How were the Saxons converted to Christianity?

54. What was the state of learning among the Saxons? When and how was learning introduced into England?

55. What did the Saxons use instead of figures in numbering?

56. What was the state of law and medicine? 57. What was the state of the arts?

58. What was the state of architecture?

59. What was the trade of the Saxons ?

60. What was used for coin among the Saxons? 61. Describe the persons of the Saxons.

62. What was the state of morals among the Saxons?

63. 64. Describe the superstition of the Saxons.

65. What was the religion and love of music among the Saxons?

66. What were the vices of the Saxons? 67. What were the virtues of the Saxons? 68. What was the dress of the Saxons?

CHAPTER III.

AFTER THE NORMAN CONQUEST.

69. Agriculture. The conquest of England by William, of Normandy, was followed by great changes in the state of England. Many of the Norman nobility settled in England; many of the ecclesiastical benefices were bestowed on Norman clergy; and many laymen of other descriptions followed William and took up their abode in England. By these Normans, the agriculture of England was improved. The instruments: of husbandry, such as carts, harrows, sythes, sickles and flails, were nearly of the form now used; but the plow had but one handle, which the plowman held with one hand, having in the other an instrument for cleansing the plow and breaking clods. The Norman plow had two wheels, and was drawn by one or two oxen.

70. Architecture. Under the Norman princes, great improvements were made in the art of building, particularly in the erection of many churches and monasteries. The ancient edifices were demolished, and others of greater magnificence were erected; and during this period, was introduced the style of building called Gothic. But the clergy and monks possessed the most wealth and influence, and their zeal was directed to the building of churches, on which they bestowed immense labor and expense. But the houses of common citizens and burgesses were yet very mean. Even in London, the houses of mechanics and common burgesses were built of wood, and covered with reeds or straw, down to the close of the twelfth century.

71. Castles. During the period under consideration, murders, robberies and violence were so common, that the barons of England, as in France, erected castles for their residence. Their situation was generally on an eminence and near a river. The site was of considerable extent, and surrounded by a broad, deep ditch, called the foss, and sometimes filled with water. Before the

great gate was an out-work, called a barbacan or antemural, which was a strong high wall with turrets upon it, for defense of the gate and drawbridge over the ditch. On the inside of the ditch was the wall of the castle, eight or ten feet thick and twenty or thirty feet high, with a parapet, and on the top crennels, a sort of embrasures. From the top of this wall and from the roofs of buildings, the defenders discharged arrows, darts and stones upon the assailants. The gate of the castle in this wall was fortified with a tower on each side; it had thick folding doors of oak, with an iron portcullis. Within this outward wall was an open space, and commonly a chapel. Within this was another wall, and within that the chief tower, four or five stories high, with thick walls. This was the residence of the prince, prelate or baron to whom the castle belonged. Under ground was a vault or dungeon for the confinement of prisoners.

72. Armor. The art of making defensive armor was cultivated in the early stages of civilization. It was known to the Saxons before the conquest, and was improved under the Norman race of kings. A suit of armor consisted of many pieces of metal, nicely jointed to allow free motion to the limbs; finely polished and beautifully gilt. Samples of this armor are now to be seen in the tower of London.

73. Clothing. The dressing and spinning of wool and flax was practised before the conquest; but these arts were greatly improved by the Flemings who settled in England after the conquest. There were gilds or fraternities of weavers which had royal charters, with various privileges. Tapestry hangings, on which were historical representations, were made in England; and the Saxon females were distinguished for making ele