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had enjoyed under the Lombard kings. He also permitted the other dukes to hold their dukedoms, contenting himself with an oath of allegiance, which he obliged them, and likewise the three great dukes, to take annually. It was conceived in these words; "I promise, without fraud

or deceit, to be faithful to my sovereign Charles, and "his sons, as long as I live; and I swear by these Holy "Gospels, that I will be faithful to him, as a vassal to "his lord and sovereign: neither will I divulge any thing "which, in virtue of my allegiance, he shall commit to "me." He never transferred a dukedom from one family to another, unless when the duke broke his oath, or died without male issue. This translation from one to another was called investiture; and hence it came, that fiefs were not granted but by investiture, as was afterwards the case with respect to other vassals and feudato

ries.

Charles committed the boundaries of his new kingdom, and the territory of cities, to the care of counts, who were vested with great authority. These boundaries were called Marchæ or Marches, and those who had the care of them were styled Counts of the Marches, or Marquisses, whence the title marquis had its rise. He also sent occasionally missi, or commissaries who were vested with higher powers, and examined into the conduct of the counts, whose province it was to administer justice over all the dominions of Charlemagne. That Italy might retain at least some shadow of liberty, he convened, as often as he returned thither, a general assembly of all the bishops, abbots, and barons of the kingdom, in order to settle affairs of national imporThe Lombards had but one order in the state, composed of the barons and judges; but the French, in the time of Charlemagne, had two, the clergy and nobility; hence was added by Charles in Italy, after the manner of France, the order of ecclesiastics to that of the barons or nobles".

tance.

5. Sigonius, ubi sup.

6. Ibid.

The

The affairs of Italy being thus settled, Charles returned to France and marched immediately against the Saxons, who had again revolted during his absence. though brave and independent people, which lasted upwards of thirty years, and formed the principal business of his reign, could afford little pleasure to a humanized mind. I shall therefore only observe, That, after a number of battles gallantly fought, and many cruelties committed on both sides, the Saxons were totally subjected, and Germany became part of the empire of Charlemagne. A desire to convert the Saxons to Christianity seems to have been one of the principal motives for prosecuting this conquest; and as they were no less tenacious of their religion than their liberty, persecution marched in the train of war, and stained with blood the fetters of slavery.

A. D. 775. But his wars with that barbarous,

Witikind, so deservedly celebrated by his nation, was the most eminent Saxon general during these hostilities. He frequently roused the drooping valour of his countrymen, and revived in their hearts the love of liberty and independency. Nor were they wanting to him in attachment, for which they severely paid. After an unsuccessful revolt, when they went to make submission to Charlemagne, he ordered four thousand five hundred of their principal men to be massacred, because they refused to deliver up their general'. An equal instance of severity is not, perhaps, to be met with in the history of mankind; especially if we consider, that the Saxons were not Charles's natural subjects, but an independent people struggling for freedom. Witikind at last submitted and embraced Christianity, continuing ever after faithful to his engagements. But he could never inspire his associates with the same docile sentiments: they were continually revolting; and submitting, that they might

7. Eginhard, in Annal.

have it in their power to revolt again.

On the final

reduction of their country, the more resolute spirits retired into Scandinavia, carrying along with them their vindictive hatred against the dominion and the religion of France.

Charlemagne very justly

A word here of religion. considered the mild doctrines of Christianity as the best means of taming a savage people; but he was mistaken in supposing that force will ever make Christians. His Capitulars for the Saxons are almost as barbarous as their manners. He obliged them, under pain of death, to receive baptism; he condemns to the severest punishments the breakers of Lent: in a word, he every where substitutes force for persuasion. Instead therefore, of blaming the obstinacy of these barbarians, we ought to be filled with horror at the cruel bigotry of the conqueror.

Almost every year of Charles's reign was signalized by some military expedition, though very different from those of our times. War was then carried on without any settled plan of operations. The troops were neither regularly disciplined nor paid. Every nobleman led forth his vassals, who were only obliged to serve for a certain time; so that there was a kind of necessity of concluding the war with the campaign. The army was dissolved on the approach of winter, and assembled next season, if necessary. Hence we are enabled to account for a circumstance which would otherwise appear inexplicable, in the reign of this great prince.-Besides the Lombards, and Saxons, whom he conquered, Charles vanquished in several engagements the Abares or Huns, plundered their capital, and penetrated as far as Raab on the Danube. He likewise made an expedition into Spain, and carried his arms to the banks of the Ebro.

Abdurrahman, the Moorish king, whom I have already mentioned, still reigned with lustre at Cordova. A superb mosque, now the cathedral of that city, six

8. Id. ibid.

hundred

hundred feet in length, and two hundred and fifty in breadth, supported by three hundred and sixty-five columns of alabaster, jasper, and black marble, continues to manifest the grandeur of this monarch. No other people but the Arabs could then either have conceived or executed such a work. The little Christian king of the Asturias had prudently sued for peace from Abdurrahman; but the Moorish governors of Saragossa and Arragon having revolted, implored the assistance of Charlemagne, offering to acknowledge him as their sovereign. Willing to extend his empire on that side, Charles crossed the Pyrenees with all expediA. D. 778. tion; took Pampeluna and Saragossa, and re-established the Moorish governors under his protection. In repassing the mountains, his rear-guard was defeated by the duke of Gascony, at Roncevaux'. Here fell the famous Roland, so much celebrated in Romance, and represented as nephew to Charlemagne; though history only tells us, that he commanded on the frontiers of Bretagne.

But Charles, though engaged in so many wars, was far from neglecting the arts of peace, the happiness of his subjects, or the cultivation of his own mind. Government, manners, religion, and letters, were his constant study. He frequently convened the national assemblies, for regulating affairs both of church and state. In these assemblies he proposed such laws as he considered to be of public benefit, and allowed the same liberty to others; but of this liberty, indeed it would have been difficult to deprive the French nobles, who had been accustomed, from the foundation of the monarchy, to share the legislation with their sovereign. His attention extended even to the most distant corner of his empire, and to all ranks of men. Sensible how much mankind in general reverence old customs, and those constitutions under which they have lived from their youth, he

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permitted the inhabitants of all the countries that he conquered to retain their own laws, making only such alterations as he judged absolutely necessary for the good of the community. He was particularly tender of the common people and every where studied their ease and advantage. This benevolence of mind, which can never be sufficiently admired, was both more necessary and more meritorious in those times, as the commonalty were then in a state of almost universal oppression, and scarcely thought entitled to the common sympathies of humanity. The same love of mankind led him to repair and form public roads; to build bridges, where necessary; to make rivers navigable, for the purposes of commerce; and to project that grand canal, which would have opened a communication between the German Ocean and the Black Sea, by uniting the Danube and the Rhine". This illustrious project failed in the execution, for want of those machines which art has since constructed. But the greatness of the conception, and the honour of hav ing attempted it were beyond the power of contingencies: and posterity has done justice to the memory of Charles, by considering him on account of that and his other public spirited plans, as one of those few conquerors who did not merely desolate the earth; as a hero truly worthy of the name, who sought to unite his own glory with the welfare of his species.

This great prince was no less amiable in private life than illustrious in his public character. He was an affectionate father, a fond husband, and a generous friend. His house was a model of economy, and his person of simplicity and true grandeur. "For shame!" said he to some of his nobles, who were finer dressed than the occasion required; "learn to dress like men, and let the world judge of your rank by your merit, not your habit. Leave silks and finery to women; or reserve them for those days of pomp and ceremony, when robes are worn

10. Eginhard, Vit. Car. Mag.

for

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