PART THIRD.

MODERN HISTORY

FROM THE ERA OF THE REFORMATION, AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.

THE great historical and political events which characterize this last period of Universal History were brought about by many concurrent circumstances, sufficiently united in respect of date to form a marked difference between the middle ages and the events of modern times. The introduction of the mariner's compass was followed, though at a long interval, by the discovery of America and by the circumnavigation of Africa; while the invention of printing prepared the way for the intellectual and religious changes effected by Luther in the sixteenth century.

In considering the actual state of Europe, we must not forget the influence of race and language. The nations of the South, with their Roman habits and dialects, were in almost constant opposition to those of the North, whose language and manners were of Germanic origin. In the West, civilisation was rapidly developed, and carried to the most distant countries, whereas in the East, the people, chiefly of Sclavonic lineage, were too much engaged in opposing the barbarians to make any great progress in the arts of peace. Similar causes will also account for the backwardness of the Scandinavian tribes, who were so far removed from the influence of refinement.

In all the nations of Gothic descent, which alone were strictly under the feudal law, a powerful middle class arose by degrees, and supported the kings against the barons. But the struggle was long and severe ere the people triumphed. In the middle of the fifteenth century, feudalism was dominant in the Empire; it had humbled the Castilian monarchs, and preserved its supremacy in Portugal, England, and Naples; in Scotland it was attacked by the sovereigns; while in France, Charles VIII., successful in recovering those provinces conquered by the English, paved the way for its abolition; and, before the end of the century, Ferdinand of Spain, Henry VII. of England, and Louis XI. of France, had established the royal power on its ruins. Sweden, which had been united to Denmark during sixty years, broke the union of Calmar; Russia emancipated herself from the Tartar yoke; and the Teutonic order of knights became the vassals of Poland. During the time the emperor was busied in founding the greatness of his house, and Germany in repairing the evils inflicted by her political and religious wars, all the Eastern states were menaced by the Turks, whom the Hungarians at length arrested in their victorious career. By the middle of the sixteenth century, the Reformed doctrines were already spread (349)

30

throughout Europe, particularly in France, England, Scotland, and the Low Countries. Spain alone remained closed against them, and became their most determined adversary.

The Eastern and Northern states did not long remain strangers to the European republics. During the rivalry of Francis I. and Charles VI., Turkey was identified with the European system; and at the beginning of the seventeenth century, Sweden interfered in a resolute manner in the affairs of her southern neighbours. It was now that France assumed a high position; and Louis XIV. dictated to Europe so long as his antagonists were composed of the divided Empire, Holland, and Spain, then almost ruined; but his influence and power were eclipsed so soon as William III., in 1688, ascended the British throne, and was enabled to wield the extensive resources of his new kingdom. In concert with Holland, the English destroyed the pretensions of France to the dominion of the sea, and, in union with Austria, confined her within her proper limits, though they could not prevent the establishment of a Bourbon on the Spanish throne. Sweden was the principal northern power: twice she effected considerable conquests, but was too feeble to maintain a lasting supremacy. Her career, too, was checked by Russia, which eventually attained the superiority she has ever since preserved.

The beginning of the eighteenth century was marked by the formation of the kingdoms of Prussia and Sardinia. The colonial wars, one of the characteristics of this period, furnished England with an opportunity of destroying the navies of France and Spain, and of asserting her power over the neutral states. The revolution of her American dependencies threatened her influence, and terminated in the loss of these important settlements; but, presenting a determined front to her enemies, she founded in the East an empire of vast wealth and extent.

At the close of the eighteenth century, war raged throughout the greater part of Europe; and the very foundations of society were shaken by the most terrible revolution on record. The political whirlwind spread from France over Europe, leaving in all directions the deepest marks of its progress. But as storms and tempests serve to purify the atmosphere, so good has, in the political world, sprung out of what ap peared to be unmingled evil. Constitutional monarchies are everywhere established, or the way is rapidly preparing for them; and the influence of the middle class is more directly felt in the governments both of England and France.

SIXTEENTH CENTURY.

BRITAIN AND IRELAND.-1509, Henry VIII.-1513, Battle of Flodden; James V.-1514, Wolsey.-1527, Anne Boleyn.-1536, First Suppression of Monasteries.-1542, Mary, Queen of Scotland.-1547, Edward VI.-1553, Mary.-1558, Elizabeth.-1587, Queen of Scotland beheaded.-1588, Spanish Armada defeated.-1598, Irish Revolt.

FRANCE.-1508, League of Cambray against Venice.-1512, Battle of Ravenna. - 1515, Francis I. 1520, Field of Cloth of Gold.-1544, Battle of Cerrisoles; Boulogne taken by the English. 1545, Massacre of the Vaudois.— 1558, Calais recovered.-1560, Charles IX.-1572, Massacre of St. Bartho

lomew.-1574, Henry III.-1588, States of Blois.-1589, Henry IV.—1598, Edict of Nantes.

ITALIAN PENINSULA.-1501, Naples conquered by French.-1503, Battle of Cerignola; 1525, of Pavia.-1537, Cosmo de Medici.-1547, Fieschi's Conspiracy.-1580, Charles Emanuel of Savoy.-1585, Pope Sixtus V. SPANISH PENINSULA.- 1500, Charles V. born; Ximenes. -1539, Last Castilian Cortes.-1555, Philip II.-1557, Sebastian of Portugal.-1578, Henry I. of Portugal.-1596, Cadiz taken by the English. UNITED PROVINCES.-1568, Death of Counts Egmont and Horn.-1579, Union of Utrecht.-1584, Prince of Orange murdered.-1597, Victory of Turnhout. GERMANY.-1501, Aulic Council.-1517, Luther.-1519, Charles V. Emperor. -1530, Diet of Augsburg.-1535, Anabaptist War.-1545, Council of Trent. -1552, Treaty of Passau.-1556, Ferdinand I.; 1564, Maximilian II.; 1576, Rudolph II.

HUNGARY AND Bohemia.-1490, Ladislaus.-1516, Louis II.-1526, Battle of Mohaz; John Zapoli and Ferdinand.-1541, John Sigismund.-1548, Hereditary Succession of Bohemia.-1566, Turkish Invasion.

POLAND AND RUSSIA.-1506, Sigismund I. king of Poland.-1519, Polish War against Teutonic Order.-1533, Ivan IV.-1550, New Code.-1573, Henry of Valois.-1581, Conquest of Siberia.-1598, End of Rurik Dynasty. DENMARK, SWEDEN, AND NORWAY. -1448, Christian II.-1523, Gustavus Vasa.-1534, Christian III. — 1560, Eric of Sweden.-1592, Sigismund of Poland.

The East.—1501, Ismael Sophi, King of Persia.—1512, Selim I.—1515, Mogul Empire in the East Indies.-1521, Belgrade taken.-1522, Siege of Rhodes. -1548, War with Persia.-1553, Roxalana.-1571, Battle of Lepanto.1574, Amurath III.-1585, Shah Abbas.

COLONIES.-1500, Brazil discovered.-1503, Portuguese first established in India.-1508, West Indies.-1513, Discovery of the South Sea.- 1526, Pizarro in Peru.-1584, Virginia, the First English Colony.-1586, Davis' Straits. THE CHURCH.-1517, Luther.-1525, Capuchin Order.-1530, Confession of Augsburg.--1533, Calvinists.-1534, English Reformation.-1540, Jesuits. -1545, Council of Trent.-1546, Socinians.-1552, St. Francis Xavier.— 1568, Bull in Caná Domini, -1572, Massacre of St. Bartholomew.- 1580, Chinese Mission. INVENTIONS, &c.-1517, Gun-locks.-1538, Lotteries.-1548, Balance Wheel. -1582, Reformed Calendar; Oil-Painting.-1593, Telescope and Ther

mometer.

BRITAIN.

ENGLAND. In 1501 and 1502 were concluded two marriages which led to important results in after-times. Arthur, prince of Wales, son of Henry VII., having espoused Catherine of Aragon, fourth daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and dying six months afterwards, his brother, afterwards Henry VIII., accepted the hand of the widow; while Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry VII., married James IV. of Scotland, thereby transmitting rights to her descendants which at length placed the Stuart family on the English throne.

HENRY VIII. succeeded his father in the year 1509, at the age of eighteen. His accession to the throne excited transports of joy in the nation, which had been dissatisfied with the parsimonious habits of his predecessor. The treasures amassed by the latter furnished the young king with immense resources; the chief potentates of the Continent sought his alliance; the treaties with France were made perpetual; and nothing was thought wanting to his happiness. The celebrated Wolsey now first appeared on the theatre of politics; and, soon after his introduction to Henry, became the most influential member of the privycouncil, and was considered prime-minister. Although older than his majesty, he made it his study to flatter and subserve the natural disposition of his master for luxury and every kind of pleasure. Henry speedily dissipated in tournaments and banquets the wealth left by his parent; and turned his attention to political intrigues and active warfare. Pope Julius II., eager to expel the French, whom, in virtue of the league of Cambray, he had introduced into Italy, spared no means to gain his support. He succeeded so far as to interrupt the friendly relations with Louis XII., and the English king in person led an army into Flanders, where he took Terouenne, and routed the enemy at Guinegate, in the Battle of the Spurs. In Scotland, the arms of Henry were not less successful; and James IV., the Scottish monarch, was entirely defeated and slain at Flodden in 1513. But finding at length that he had been the dupe of the Pope, he concluded a treaty with Louis XII., giving him in marriage his sister Mary, 1514.

Francis I. renewed the treaties of his predecessors, and Wolsey seized on this opportunity of making himself agreeable to the French ruler, whose influence he required at Rome to obtain a cardinal's hat, the object of his ambition. The crafty churchman, however, took advantage of the success gained by his patron at Marignano to alarm Henry as to the effect of the victories of the young and warlike sovereign. The long rivalry between Francis I. and Charles V., consequent on the elevation of the latter to the imperial dignity, for which Henry had himself been a candidate, brought the English monarch into the quarrel, in the first instance, as the ally of the emperor.

Discussions of a very different character soon engrossed the attention of the English monarch. Henry, who piqued himself greatly on his theological abilities, was indignant at the contempt with which Luther had treated Thomas Aquinas. In support of his favourite author, he composed "A Treatise in Defence of the Seven Sacraments," which was presented to the Pope, who, besides comparing it to the writings of Jerome and Augustin, gratified the king with the title of "Defender of the Faith," 1521. In return, the royal author, who was not inaccessible to the voice of praise, entered readily into the league against the King

of France.

The English invaded Picardy, and advanced to within eleven leagues of Paris, when the defeat and capture of Francis at Pavia in 1525, altered the policy of their sovereign. His intercession between the captive and Charles led to new conventions between England and France, whereby Henry gave up all pretensions to the crown of the latter country, which his predecessors had claimed since the reign of Edward III.

In 1527, Henry was seized with a passion for Anne Boleyn, one of

the queen's maids of honour; and he seems to have early formed the design of getting rid of Catherine, and making this new favourite his wife. The quarrel between Pope Clement VII. and Charles V. appeared to Henry a favourable moment for accomplishing his purpose. Proposals to annul the marriage had been ineffectually made to the Pope several months before Anne appeared at court, when the king's determination assumed all the violence natural to his character. Affecting to have scruples as to the lawfulness of his union with Catherine, and adopting the express language of the Book of Leviticus, he forwarded a theological treatise on the subject to Clement, who, pressed on the one side by a prince whom he was desirous of conciliating, and on the other by the emperor whom he feared, promised and temporized, in the hope that the passion of the former would cool. But this delay only irritated Henry's impatient temper, and, after a disgraceful scene before the two legates, he banished the unfortunate Catherine from court, 1529. Meanwhile the Pope had become reconciled with Charles V., at whose instigation the case was transferred to Rome. For this change the king held Wolsey responsible, who, overwhelmed with sudden disgrace, was stripped of his immense riches, and died of a broken heart, 1530. His place was soon supplied by Cranmer, under whose advice Henry consulted the principal universities of Europe, the majority of which were favourable to his wishes; and to annoy and weaken the clergy, he included them in the charge previously brought against the cardinal, of violating the statute of "præmunire.' 99* A convocation was immediately summoned, and £100,000 were offered for a full pardon, which Henry, who had now resolved on entirely subverting the papal authority, refused unless he were acknowledged "Supreme Head of the Church in England." Having attained his object, he secretly married Anne Boleyn, 1533; and after publicly acknowledging his new wife, had her crowned with great ceremony so soon as Cranmer, now raised to the see of Canterbury, could pronounce the sentence of divorce against Catherine. The parliament ratified the marriage with Anne, and declared Mary, the issue of the previous union, illegitimate. It also formally annulled the pontifical authority, and conferred on the king the title of "Supreme Head of the Anglican Church," with most of the spiritual prerogatives previously exercised by the Pope.

In separating from the Romish communion, Henry pretended still to be orthodox. Believing himself absolute master of the minds of his subjects as well as of their bodies, he changed the discipline of the church, but retained its doctrines. In his eyes it was equally criminal to believe in the Pope or in Luther; and those of either party who were unable to disguise their sentiments, were punished alike. In 1535, two illustrious victims, Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas More, perished on the scaffold for refusing to take the oath of supremacy; and at the same time, Protestants were dragged to the stake for speaking against the sacraments of the Roman church. The monks, whose credit had fallen with the power of the pontiff, detested the sacrilege which they conceived

*This law, which is still in force, was passed during the disputes of Richard II. with the papacy, and enacts, that if any man shall seek or obtain, in the court of Rome or elsewhere, any translations of bishops from their present sees to other sees out of the kingdom; any excommunications, bulls, or other instruments against the king's crown and dignity; that his goods and chattels, lands and tenements, shall be forfeited to the crown, and his body imprisoned.