who overthrow the statues that had been raised to him in the Capitol. After him, Urban VII., Gregory XIV., and Innocent IX., successively reigned only a few months; they were followed by Clement VIII. in 1592, who reunited Ferrara to the Holy See, and expired in 1605.

PARMA AND PIACENZA.-Pope Paul III., who passionately desired the aggrandizement of his family, had obtained, in 1545, the consent of the Sacred College to confer on his illegitimate son, Peter Louis Farnese, the states of Parma and Piacenza, with the title of duke, feudatory to the holy see. But the new ruler was assassinated in 1547 by the nobles, to whom his debauchery, cruelty, and, above all, his various efforts to limit their privileges, had rendered him odious. Ferdinand de Gonzago, governor of Milan for the emperor, who had taken some share in this conspiracy, seized on the duchy in the name of his master. Octavius, the duke's son, claimed Parma, which the Pope had resumed, and applied to Henry II. of France for assistance, by whose intervention it was recovered, in 1552, to which Piacenza was added by Philip II., in 1556. The long reign of this prince, of nearly forty years, contributed greatly to strengthen the ducal throne. He was succeeded by his son Alexander, who commanded the Spanish troops in Flanders, and died at Arras in 1592. His successor, Ranuzio I., exercised the most frightful tyranny.

SPANISH PENINSULA.

The death of their only son, and other family bereavements, induced Ferdinand and Isabella to centre all their hopes on the Princess Joanna and her posterity. In 1504, on the demise of Isabella, the infanta and her husband the archduke succeeded to the crown of Castile, their son Charles becoming prince of the Asturias: two years afterwards, Philip's reign was terminated by death. This event entirely unhinged the mind of his consort, and Ferdinand, her father, became regent of the kingdom. He expelled John d'Albret from the throne of Navarre, thus extending the limits of the Spanish monarchy to the Pyrenees, 1512. This prince, who has been reproached for his insatiable avarice and crafty policy, died in 1516, leaving the throne to Charles, afterwards Emperor of Germany.

Ferdinand, of whom it was said by Philip II. that royalty in Spain was indebted to him for every thing, rescued the country from feudal anarchy. Under various pretexts by violence or judicial sentence-he deprived the nobles of the lands they had acquired from the prodigality or weakness of his predecessors, and diminished the power of the religious military orders. By these and similar innovations, he firmly established the royal authority; but at the same time laid the foundation of a political and religious despotism, which attained its full development in the following reign.

CHARLES I. was successively recognised king of Castile and Aragon, principally through the influence of his able minister, Cardinal Ximenes. The partiality of the monarch for his Flemish favourites had the effect of greatly alienating the affections of the Spanish people; when, in the midst of the discontents thus occasioned, his grandfather Maximilian died, and he succeeded to the imperial crown by the title of Charles V., 1519. His departure to Germany was immediately followed by a formidable insurrection, in which even the clergy took part, one of the most active leaders being the Bishop of Zamora; it was, however,

quelled after a short, but ill-concerted struggle. The history of Spain during this reign is henceforth almost inseparably connected with that of the empire. The incessant wars in which Charles was involved, compelled him to make frequent applications, particularly to his Spanish subjects, for the necessary funds. In 1539, the cortes being assembled at Toledo, he proposed to relieve the wants of his government by a general impost upon all kinds of merchandise. The violent opposition of the several orders, especially of the nobles and clergy, to the imposition of this tax, led to an important change in the constitution of the cortes. Finding it impossible to overcome their resistance, the emperor indignantly dissolved the assembly, remarking that those who did not contribute had no right to deliberate. Thenceforth, neither nobles nor prelates were summoned to take part in the discussion of any fiscal question, the states being composed merely of the representatives of cities, who, to the number of thirty-six, formed an assembly entirely subservient to the will of the court.

PHILIP II. was called to the throne, in 1555, by the abdication of his father, and signalized the commencement of his reign by stringent measures for the extirpation of Lutheranism. The regulations of the Council of Trent were rendered imperative throughout the whole extent of the Spanish monarchy; and, with the view of compelling the Moors to embrace Christianity, it was ordered, in 1568, that they should renounce their language, names, and all distinctive usages. This blind tyranny provoked a general insurrection, which was headed by Mohammed-Aben-Humeya, a descendant of the former sovereigns of Granada. Don John of Austria being sent against them, they were defeated in several engagements, and compelled to submit to conditions which involved their removal from their former residence, and their dispersion through the old Christian provinces, 1576.

Revolutions in Portugal were preparing the way for the temporary union of that kingdom with Spain. The absolute government which had prevailed in the former country under John II. and Emanuel, increased greatly under John III. In the reign of this monarch, which lasted thirty-six years, the cortes were only three times convoked; while the establishment of the Inquisition, and the introduction of the Jesuits, contributed greatly to the consolidation of despotism. The disastrous reign of Sebastian, grandson of John III., began in 1557, when the king was a minor three years of age. Educated in a manner well calculated to excite a naturally romantic character, and full of religious and knightly ardour, he, in 1578, undertook an expedition against the Moors in Africa, where he was defeated and slain. The Cardinal Henry now succeeded, the only important event of whose short rule was the meeting of the estates at Lisbon to decide between the claims of the six pretenders to the throne on his decease, among whom was Philip II. of Spain. The priest-king, as Henry was called, died in 1580; and Philip, having gained over a part of the Portuguese nobles, ordered 30,000 men into Portugal, who, in three weeks, obtained possession of the country.

*Henry is seen to much greater advantage as a prelate than as a king. He reformed the too relaxed manners of the ecclesiastics, established schools and hospitals for the poor, protected letters, founded the university of Evora, and colleges at Coimbra and Lisbon. He employed the Jesuit Maffei in writing the history of the Portuguese in the Indies, encouraged the useful labours of many learned men, and himself composed several works.

The Spanish arms were at this period in the height of their success in Flanders under Alexander Farnese. Seized with the emulation of subjugating France and England, and at the same time irritated by the assistance which the latter country had afforded to the Flemish revolt, Philip, in 1588, fitted out the famous armament known as the invincible armada, which was signally defeated. Spain now gradually became of less importance in the politics of Europe; her naval power and commerce declined; and the king, at his death in 1598, bequeathed a debt of 140 millions of ducats to a nation whose resources were already exhausted.*

THE NETHERLANDS.

Philip the Hardy, youngest son of John of France, having been created Duke of Burgundy in 1363, married Margaret, daughter and heiress of Louis III., last count of Flanders. With the hand of this princess, he obtained, in addition to the county now named, Artois, Franche-Comté, Nevers, Rethel, Mechlin, and Antwerp. The fortune of the family rapidly increased with the lapse of years, and the dukes of Burgundy were soon more powerful than_several of the kings of Europe. On the death of Charles the Bold, Louis XI. seized on the dukedom, while all the other provinces passed to the house of Austria by the marriage of Mary of Burgundy with the Archduke Maximilian, 1477, whose grandson Charles V. increased his domains by the lordships of Utrecht and Overyssel, with the territory of Groningen. He then formed the plan of uniting the seventeen provincest with Spain. Under this monarch the United Provinces greatly flourished; but his son, Philip II., desirous of eradicating Protestantism, introduced the Inquisition, which ultimately drove the inhabitants into rebellion.

In the Counts Egmont and Horn, and in William of Nassau, prince of Orange, the people had leaders worthy of their cause. Their representations to the sovereign having failed, they attacked the churches and monasteries, and after destroying the altars and images, violently introduced the Protestant form of worship.

Philip, in 1567, sent the Duke of Alva into the Low Countries with an army of 20,000 men, at whose approach 100,000 Flemings abandoned their country, carrying their treasures and industry into France, Ger-. many, and England. A tribunal of twelve judges established by Alva to examine into the excesses, and discover those who favoured Protestant doctrines, caused no fewer than 18,000 persons to perish by the hand of the executioner. The most illustrious of these victims were the Counts of Egmont and Horn, who suffered death at Brussels, June 5, 1568. The news of this cruelty was the signal for a fresh revolt and civil commotion. The Prince of Orange, at the head of a large but undisciplined army of Germans, French, Italians, and Flemings, invaded

*At his accession, Philip possessed, in Europe, the united kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, and Navarre, with Naples, Sicily, Milan, Franche-Comté, and the Netherlands; in Africa, Tunis, Oran, the Cape Verde and Canary Islands; in America, Peru, Mexico, New Spain, and Chili, besides Cuba, Hispaniola, &c. The mines of Mexico, Chili, and Potosi were alone a source of greater wealth than almost all the other princes of Europe together were possessed of.-Watson's Philip II., vol. i. p. 17.

†These provinces were the duchies of Brabant, Limburg, Luxemburg, and Gueldres'; the seven earldoms of Flanders, Hainault, Artois, Holland, Zealand, Namur, and Zutphen; the marquisate of Antwerp, and the five lordships of Mechlin, Friesland, Utrecht, Groningen, and Overryssel.

Luxemburg. His first efforts being unsuccessful, he and his brother Louis were compelled to return to Germany. Though defeated on land, the prince and Count William de la Marck encouraged a maritime war against the Spaniards; and in 1572, a small body captured the town of Briel, an event which laid the foundation of the republic of the United Provinces. A revolution broke out in Zealand; and all the cities, except Middleburg, opened their gates to the insurgents, an example followed by many towns in Holland. At Dort, William was declared stadtholder, and the public exercise of the Reformed religion in the Calvinistic form openly introduced.

Alva was recalled and disgraced; his successor, Louis de Requesens, and Don John of Austria, continued the war with varied success. The Spanish fleet having attempted to secure Middleburg, was defeated by the Prince of Orange; while Count Louis of Nassau and his brother Henry were killed at the battle of Mookerheide. One of the most remarkable events of the war was the siege of Leyden, 1574, which was defended by the Dutch with heroic resolution. The dikes of the Yssel and Maes were broken down; the fields occupied by the besieging army inundated; and the invaders were eventually forced to retire. In the following year, the states of Holland founded the university of Leyden, which long held an elevated rank among the great seminaries of Europe.

The Spanish soldiery now committed the greatest excesses, plundering many cities, and ravaging the open country. In this extremity, a common danger united the Protestants and Catholics. The states-general, assembled at Brussels, proposed negotiating with the Prince of Orange and the confederates of Dort. Their overtures were favourably received; and a treaty of general union was concluded, under the title of the "Pacification of Ghent," between the provinces of the north and south, guaranteeing mutual support against the Spaniards, and solemnly pledging the contracting parties not to lay down their arms until their enemies were finally expelled from the country, 1576.

vernor.

On the death of Requesens, Don John of Austria was appointed goThe confederates were now masters of Antwerp, Bergen-opZoom, Breda, and other important places. With an army of 20,000 men, the new governor was at first successful; but was eventually defeated on the banks of the Diemar, and dying in 1578, was succeeded by the Prince of Parma, who, like his predecessors, failed to make any impression on the northern provinces. He was so far successful, however, in sowing dissension between the states of the north and south, that the Prince of Orange, who had long regretted the insecure nature of the connexion subsisting between them, was led to form the design of isolating the northern provinces from the rest of the Low countries, and establishing a republic of which he should be the head. The act which realized this design was signed at Utrecht, January 25, 1579, between the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gueldres, and Groningen. Friesland and Overyssel acceded to it in June following; and several cities of Belgium, including Ghent, Antwerp, and Breda, joined it somewhat later. William of Orange was elected stadtholder, with all the attributes of royalty.

While the Seven United Provinces braved with their own resources the power and vengeance of Spain, the ten others had elected the Duke

of Anjou, brother of Henry III., to the sovereignty of the Low Countries; but that prince, having foolishly attempted to tamper with the constitution of his new dominions, was driven back to France in 1584. In the same year, William was assassinated at Delft, at the instigation of Philip, by Balthasar Gerard; and, in the absence of the prince's eldest son, who was a prisoner in Spain, Maurice, his second son, was raised to his father's dignities, and notwithstanding his youth, became a formidable rival to the Duke of Parma. The loss of William, however, was a severe blow to the confederation; the Spaniards recovered several cities, and reduced the states to such extremity, that they offered, as the price of succours, to resign the country either to England or France. Elizabeth afforded only a trifling assistance; but her aid, by involving Philip in those hostilities with England which led to the destruction of the armada, had an important though indirect influence on the welfare of the United Provinces. The scale was finally turned in their favour by the death of the Prince of Parma, in 1592; and the battle of Turnhout, in which his successor was totally routed by the allied English and Dutch forces, 1597, may be regarded as the virtual conclusion of the contest.

The result of the protracted struggle between the sovereign of so many states and the small republic of the Seven Provinces appears almost a miracle. Many circumstances, however, contributed to thwart the King of Spain and to favour the Dutch. They would have been inevitably crushed, if Philip II. had brought all his power to bear upon them; but his ambition, which compelled him to divide his forces, was a protection to his enemies. That ruinous policy which kept traitors in every court of Europe in his pay, the support he gave to the League in France, the insurrection of the Moors of Granada, the conquest of Portugal, and the construction of the magnificent palace of the Escurial, dissipated treasures which seemed almost inexhaustible; while his armament against England swallowed up the entire revenues of both Indies, and proved the destruction of the veteran Spanish soldiery.

The situation of the insurgents was different. They found auxiliaries in all those who, to escape the Duke of Alva, had quitted the southern provinces; in all whom the Huguenot wars had driven from France; and in all whom religious intolerance had banished from other parts of Europe. The enthusiasm inspired by new doctrines, the desire of vengeance, and other motives, attracted to their standards the adventurers of all countries. Thus the Dutch army was complete without the necessity of withdrawing men from the cultivation of the fields, from commerce, or from their extensive fisheries, which, in 1604, contributed five millions of florins to the revenue. At the epoch when the new country was struggling for existence, it extended its dominion beyond the seas, and laid the foundations of its power in the East Indies. Schiller's Revolt of the Netherlands.

GERMANY.

The reign of Maximilian was an important one both to Germany and his hereditary dominions. He reformed the public law of the empire, and was the first to establish a standing army, with infantry, cavalry, and artillery, divided into regiments and companies. In 1501, he instituted the Aulic Council, which gradually acquired extensive jurisdiction, in some respects superior to that of the Imperial Chamber. The diet of Treves, besides confirming the power of the council, completed the subdivision of the empire into circles, by adding four others to the six instituted in 1500. He also secured the reversion of Hungary and Bohemia to his posterity, by the double marriage of the Archduchess