adorned by the names of Marot, 1544, the inventor of the rondeau; Rabelais, 1553, the witty but impure author of the adventures of Pantagruel and Gargantua; Ronsard, 1585, an elegant poet and sonnetteer, especially distinguished by Francis I.; Montaigne, 1592, the garrulous but sceptical essayist; and Malherbe, 1628, some of whose poems are the most touching in the whole range of French literature. Philology was honoured by the printers and critics, Robert and Henry Stephens, 1559 and 1598; by the learned Scaliger, 1609; and by Casaubon, 1614. The names of Calvin, 1564, and the correct Beza, 1605, have distinguished the theology of France.

ITALY. This century was the famous Medician era of Italian literature. In it flourished the poets Ariosto, 1533, author of Orlando Furioso; Vida, 1566, who wrote the Christiad in Latin verse; Tasso, 1595, celebrated for the epic of Jerusalem Delivered; Guarini, 1612, the author of the Pastor Fido; and Tassoni, 1635, the witty writer of the Rape of the Bucket. History was adorned by the acute Machiavelli, 1527, whose name has passed into a proverb; by Guicciardini, 1540; by the Latin history of Venice by Bembo, 1547, who occasionally strayed into the field of poetry; and by Sarpi, 1623, better known as Father Paul, the historian of the Council of Trent. Scholars and critics still respect the names of the printer Manutius Aldus, 1516, whose editions of the classics are highly prized; of Sannazarius, 1530, whose poem De Partu Virginis, is said to have occupied him twenty years; and of the learned Joseph Scaliger, 1609. The unequalled paintings of Leonardo da Vinci, 1520; of Raphael, 1520; of Corregio, 1534; of Titian, 1576; and of the two Caracci, 1609 and 1618, adorn the churches of Italy and the galleries of Europe; while Michael Angelo, 1564, courted with equal success the rival muses of painting, sculpture, and architecture. Cardan, 1576, facilitated the operations of algebra, by his method for the solution of equations of the third degree.

SPAIN. The great exploits of Spain were celebrated by various eminent writers. The Jesuit Mariana, 1624, wrote a general history of that country; Herrera, 1625, was the chronicler of the reign of Philip II. and of the Castilian conquests in the Western World; Garcilasso, 1536, revived the lyric poetry of the nation; Ercilla, 1596, the most celebrated epic poet of the peninsula, composed, in 1590, the Araucana, in which he describes the wars he had shared in the New World. John de la Cueva, Christoval de Virues, Father Ojeda, and Zorate, each wrote an epic poem. Lope de Vega, the greatest poet of this era, 1635, also composed an epic on the conquest of Jerusalem; but it was in the drama that he unfolded the full resources of his genius. Calderon, 1687, who, with the poet just mentioned, scarcely belongs to this century, ranks in the very first class of tragic writers. The romance of Don Quixoto, by Cervantes, 1616, has become part of the standard literature of every civilized nation. Mendoza, Boscan, Louis de Leon, and Quevedo, have attained a European celebrity.

PORTUGAL. The first Portuguese writer of merit was Ribeyro, 1521. Camoens, at once the glory and shame of his native land, died a year before Portugal was subjected to the Spanish crown, 1579. His great poem, the Lusiad, was written during his exile at Macao: it is a description of the discoveries and exploits of his countrymen in the East.

GERMANY AND HOLLAND.-Albert Durer, 1528, the father of the German school of painting and engraving, after studying the Italian models, formed his style in the school of Bruges. Luke of Leyden, 1533, founded the Dutch school. Erasmus of Rotterdam, 1536, prepared, by the freedom of his popular writings, for a considerable change in the opinions of Europe. In poetry, the Minnesingers, the popular troubadours of Germany, were distinguished. Luther himself was no contemptible poet, and one of the chief writers of the day, 1546; and Zuingle the Swiss, 1531, and Melancthon, 1560, also adorned theology. Paracelsus alone, 1541, was conspicuous in natural philosophy, and Mercator, 1594, in geography; Lipsius, 1606, and Buxtorf, 1629, were celebrated for their learning and philological studies. Almost all that was produced in this century, of whatever is elevated and precious, arose from the inspiration of Germany. Copernicus of Thorn in Poland, 1543, by comparing

the ancient notions of astronomy, hypothetically discovered that system of the planets which was afterwards demonstrated by Newton. Tycho Brahé, 1601, even when rejecting the suppositions of Copernicus, contributed to the advancement of astronomical science by the improvement of his optical instruments and his accurate observations, 1546-1601. Kepler, 1630, united the speculations of Copernicus with the method of Brahé, and, by his immortal labours, established the foundations of modern astronomy. In Switzerland, the physician Gesner introduced the study of the natural sciences, 1516-1565.

TABLE to be filled up by the pupil with notes on any personage the
tutor may select.

Name.

Born and Died.

Where.

Performances.

Critical Opinion or
Remarks.

N. B.-The other literary periods may be studied according to this model.

SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.

GREAT BRITAIN.-1603, THE STUARTS: James I.-1605, Gunpowder Plot.1621 Whigs and Tories.-1625, Charles I.-1638, Solemn Covenant; Long Parliament.-1641, Irish Rebellion. -1643, Episcopacy abolished. - CIVIL WAR.-1649, The Commonwealth.-1653, Cromwell Protector.-1660, The Restoration: Charles II. 1665, 1666, Plague and Fire of London. - 1679, Habeas Corpus Act.-1688, Revolution: House of Orange.-1694, Triennial Act.

FRANCE.1610, Louis XIII.-Richelieu and Mazarin.-1643, Louis XIV.1659, Peace of Pyrenees.-1668, Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.-1685, Edict of Nantes revoked.-1697, Peace of Ryswick.

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.-1610, Moors expelled.-1621, Philip IV.-Decline of Spain.-1640, Revolution of Portugal.-Braganza Dynasty.-1668, Independence of Portugal.

ITALY.-1647, Massaniello.-1645, Candian War.

GERMANY. -1618, Thirty Years' War. -1648, Treaty of Westphalia.-1682, Insurrection of Tekeli.-1683, Siege of Vienna by the Turks.-1687, Hungary becomes hereditary in the Austrian Family.

HOLLAND.-1609, Truce with Spain.-1618, Synod of Dort.-1648 Treaty of Munster.-1678, Treaty of Nimeguen.-1689, William III. of Holland becomes King of England.

DENMARK.-1588, Christian IV.-1611, Swedish War.-1648, Frederick III. SWEDEN.1611, Gustavus Adolphus.-1632, Battle of Lutzen; Christiana; Abdicates in 1654.-1697, Charles XII.

POLAND.-1632, Ladislaus IV.-1647, Cossack War.-1674, John Sobiesky; Raises the Siege of Vienna, 1683.-1686, Treaty of Leopol.

RUSSIA-1613, ROMANOF DYNASTY: Michael.-1645, Alexis.-1667, Revolt of the Cossacks.-1689, Peter the Great; Turkish War.

-

OTTOMAN EMPIRE. 1645, Candian War.-1669, Conquest of Candia; Mohammed IV.-1699, Treaty of Carlowitz.

THE EAST.-Shah Abbas.-1694, Hussein Mirza.-1644, Tartar Dynasty in China. 1611, Dutch Trade with Japan. - 1659, Aurengzebe; The Mah

rattas.

COLONIES.-1600, East India Company.-1623, Dutch Cruelties at Amboyna. -1648, Factories at Madras and Hoogly; 1699, Fort-William at Calcutta. -1674, Colonies on Guinea Coast.-1625, Barbadoes and St. Kitt's.-1641, Sugar-cane planted in West Indies.- 1655, Conquest of Jamaica. — 1627, Boston founded.-1630, Rhode Island.-1632, Maryland.-1680, Carolina. 1682, Pennsylvania.-1664, French West India Company; Buccaneers.1650, Dutch settle at Cape of Good Hope.-1656, Ceylon.

CHURCH.-1638, Jansenism.-1709, Port Royal suppressed.-1650, Quakers. INVENTIONS, &c.-1602, Decimal Arithmetic.-1610, Thermometer; Satellites of Jupiter.-1614, Logarithms.-1625, Barometer.-1628, Circulation of Blood demonstrated; Tea, Coffee, Chocolate, and Sugar introduced.1658, Pocket Watches.-1686, Newtonian Philosophy.

GREAT BRITAIN.

THE STUARTS, 1603.-The death of Elizabeth terminated the main line of the Tudors, who had now filled the throne of England one hundred and eighteen years. The popular voice declared James VI. of Scotland heir to the crown, notwithstanding the claims of other competitors; and the new sovereign accordingly removed from Edinburgh to London, and quietly assumed the sceptre by the title of JAMES I. England and Scotland were thus at length united under one sovereign; and, at the suggestion of the king, who wished to obliterate all distinc tion between them, the two countries henceforth received the common designation of Great Britain. The character of James was in many respects singular. To great capacity for learning, and abilities by no means contemptible, he united a degree of meanness, pusillanimity, and vanity, which accorded but ill with his lofty ideas of the divine rights and authority of sovereigns. He was equally disposed with his prede cessor to govern despotically; but he was signally deficient in the vigour and tact which enabled Elizabeth to rule in the hearts as much as over the persons of her subjects. At the same time, the discontents of the Catholics, the fears of the church party, and the energy of the popular spirit, manifested particularly in the acts of the Puritans, rendered the position of the monarch by no means an easy one. The latter party desired to make great alterations in the government and worship of the church; and, in the strictness of their manners and the fervour of their devotions, bore a striking resemblance to the Scottish Presbyterians. While, therefore, the nation was making rapid advances in wealth and intelligence, and trade and maritime enterprise flourished, causes were at work which threatened the stability of regal government, and led to the great national convulsions in the next reign.

GUNPOWDER PLOT.-Soon after the accession of James, a plot had been discovered to place Arabella Stuart, lineally descended from Henry

VII., upon the throne; but the conspirators, who were in correspondence with the Pope and Spain, were arrested and executed. In 1605, some disappointed Roman Catholics, at the head of whom were Robert Catesby and Thomas Percy, formed a conspiracy to destroy by gunpowder the king and assembled Parliament; and sixty-four barrels of powder had been actually deposited in the cellars beneath the house. This atrocious scheme was happily discovered, and the principals were severely punished. The famous Oath of Allegiance, 1606, was drawn up in consequence of this attempt; it asserted the supremacy of the sovereign relative to ecclesiastical matters, denying the Pope's right to depose him or absolve his subjects from their allegiance. The timidity of the monarch's temper, however, prevented him from taking further advantage of this circumstance to increase the persecution of the Catholic party.

The most laudable act of James' reign was the settlement and plantation of the north of Ireland. Previously, the legislative authority of England had been circumscribed within a small district called "the Pale," the rest of the country being abandoned to the sway of lawless native chiefs. The king extended the English law over the whole country, passed an act of indemnity for former offences, and procured the settlement in Ulster of thousands of English, Scotch, and welldisposed Irish, who contributed greatly to the pacification of the country, 1609.

While in Scotland, James had been governed by favourites, and he did not change his habits in England. He raised a Scotchman of the name of Carr from obscurity to the earldom of Rochester; but he was subsequently neglected for the handsome George Villiers, who rapidly passed through every grade of nobility, and became Duke of Buckingham, invested with many of the principal offices of the kingdom. In 1621, the king summoned a parliament, in which already were seen the two parties known as Whigs and Tories,-the former for the people, the latter for the king. His last moments were disturbed by war. The Princess Elizabeth had been married in 1613 to Frederick, Elector Palatine; this prince had afterwards the misfortune to lose his dominions, in consequence of his having accepted the sovereignty of Bohemia,* notwithstanding the aid of his father-in-law, who took part in his favour against Austria and Spain. King James died in 1625.

One of the first acts of CHARLES I. was to marry the Princess Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France, and a Catholic. The war with Spain still continuing, the king applied to parliament for aid; but was there met with so keen a spirit of liberty, and so many complaints as to his government, that he was led to revive a practice of former sovereigns of levying taxes called benevolences and ship-money, by his own authority. These acts, coupled with his arrogant assertion of the arbitrary principles held by his father, excited a universal spirit of discontent throughout the nation. In 1628, the Commons presented to him an act called a Petition of Right, limiting the powers of the crown, which not without difficulty he was prevailed on to sanction; but the disputes with Parliament soon after ran to such a height, that he dis

*Sophia, youngest daughter of this dethroned pair, having married the Duke of Brunswick, was the ancestress of the family which now reigns in Britain.

solved it in a fit of indignation, resolving never again to call another. About this time the Duke of Buckingham was assassinated; and Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, together with the Earl of Strafford, became the chief advisers of the king. The Petition of Right was now altogether disregarded, great numbers of persons were dragged before an arbitrary court, called the Star-chamber, and frequently subjected by its sentence to the greatest indignities and tortures for the most trifling offences.

In 1637, the attempts of Charles to introduce into Scotland the Episcopalian form of worship, as more favourable to royalty than Presbyterianism, drove the Scots to rebellion. In 1638, they framed the celebrated Covenant to maintain their ecclesiastical liberties, and took up arms against the king. A dreadful rebellion about the same time broke out in Ireland, in which thousands of Protestants were barbarously massacred. Under these circumstances the Long Parliament assembled, and declared its sittings permanent until the popular grievances were redressed. This act, which deprived the king of one of his highest prerogatives, was fatal to the monarchy. The ministers, Strafford and Laud, were impeached and beheaded, the one in 1641, the other in 1644. The Presbyterians, who were a majority in the Commons, procured the exclusion of the bishops from the Upper House, 1641; an act which was followed up in 1643 by the entire abolition of Episcopacy.

CIVIL WAR.- -The differences between the king and parliament had now come to a crisis. The former was generally supported by the nobility and landed gentry, the Catholics, and the high church party; while the latter found its chief strength in the mercantile and middle classes, and the lower orders of the great towns. Both parties resolved on an appeal to arms. In August 1642, the royal standard was raised at Nottingham; and for three years numerous engagements took place between the forces of the king and the parliament, the latter aided by the Scottish army. At length his majesty received a final overthrow at Naseby, 1645; and, unable longer to keep the field, he threw himself upon the protection of the Scots, then encamped at Newark, by whom he was soon after surrendered to the English parliamentary leaders, 1647. The whole power of the state had now fallen into the hands of the Independents, a fanatical sect, who declared for democratic government both in church and state. At the head of this party was OLIVER CROMWELL, general of the army, a man of great talent and address, and who seems now to have formed the design of obtaining supreme power. Having forcibly succeeded in excluding from parliament about two hundred members of the Presbyterian party who were supposed favourable to royalty, Cromwell and his associates resolved on the death of the king, 1648. He was accordingly brought to trial, condemned, and executed, 1649; an act which struck Europe with amazement, and has been generally condemned as alike illegal, sanguinary, and impolitic.

THE COMMONWEALTH.-The parliament, known by the appellation of the Rump, now administered the affairs of the country; but all real power lay in the hands of Cromwell and the army. During the progress of the civil war, an attempt had been made in Scotland to produce a diversion in the king's favour by the chivalrous Marquis of Montrose, who gained several victories, but was eventually defeated and forced to quit the kingdom. The royalists were still in considerable force in