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they commence their digging. The first instrument used is nothing more than a chisel, a bayonet, or a sharpened piece of iron, lashed on the end of a pole, ten or twelve feet long. With this they cut a circular hole in the ice of about two feet in diameter, and a foot deep. Then, when it becomes difficult to use the ice-chisel, they scoop out the accumulated pulverized ice with thin ladles made from musk-ox horn, of which I told you in a former paper.

One of these ladles is also lashed

to a long pole, and is used to dip the cut ice out of the well. And so the boys work away at their well, first cutting down a foot or so with their icechisels, and then scooping it out with their ladles, then cutting again, then scooping, until finally they have bored clear through, and the fresh water comes rushing up to the top, and all the thirsty people in camp, who have had no water all day, as well as the dogs, which are equally thirsty, get a good drink, and have plenty of water with which to prepare supper.

If the boys had not been successful in finding water, the girls would be obliged to collect a lot of ice or snow, and melt it in the stone kettles over the igloo lamps, and at least an hour would be wasted before their hot supper would be ready — and this is quite a serious affair, as in that terribly cold country, people want their supper just as soon as it can be made. Besides this, a great deal of oil would have had to be used in melting the ice and snow, and oil is very precious.

In digging the ice-well, the boys are careful to keep the hole the same diameter away down to the water, especially when they come near the bottom, for if there are any fish in the lake or river they will try to catch them through this hole in the ice. Most of the lakes and rivers of the Arctic regions of North America are full of delicious salmon, and the poor Eskimo who have to eat so much fishy seal meat and strong-tasting walrus flesh, appreciate these fine salmon much more than do we, with our great variety of food. Their fish-lines are made of reindeer sinew, and are much stronger than are our lines. The fish-hooks are simply bent pieces of sharpened iron or copper, and as they are not barbed at the end the native fisherman has to pull in very fast when he hooks his fish, or he will lose it, as every boy knows who has fished with a pin-hook.

If a lake is well stocked with fish, the natives will often camp by it for two or three days and dig a number of holes, so that the women, and every boy and girl as well, can be busy catching salmon while the hunters are roaming over the hills looking for reindeer and musk-oxen. Here they will sit, on a couple of snow-blocks, nearly all day long, holding the hook a couple of feet below the ice.

and bobbing it continually to attract the notice of the fish. Sometimes they attach small, polished ivory balls near the hook, to attract the fish, which seeing them, from a long distance, dancing up and down and glistening in the light, at once swim up and try to eat the reindeer bait on the bent hook, to their certain and speedy disgust. As a protection from the wind, the young fishers often build a sort of half igloo, and shelter themselves behind it. This also serves as a place to hide the fish that are caught; for there are always a crowd of half-starved dogs sneaking about, trying by hook or crook to steal a fish.

But this is not the only way that the Eskimo boys and girls have of catching fish. In the spring of their year, about the middle of our summer-time, when the ice is breaking up and running out of their rivers, they catch fish in great quantities at the rapids in the rivers, and store them away for use in the winter. For this purpose they use a curious spiked and barbed fish-spear, which is shown in the illustration on the preceding page.

When the fish are very numerous, the men and women, as well as the boys and girls, manage to get a footing on some rock in the rapids, where they can stand easily, and, as the fish rush by, they impale them on these spears until great quantities have been caught. The fish are then split open, and spread over double rows of strings stretched from rock to rock. Here they are left to dry, though in the cold, short arctic summer the fish only become about half as well dried, as they would in our climate. These dried fish are then stored in seal-skin bags and kept for future use; a great many are fed to the dogs to put them into good condition for the winter.

When the reindeer have been killed, their skins are stretched on the ground to dry, with the hairy side down, and although they may freeze as stiff as a board, in the course of a week or two the water will dry out of them. These skins are then taken and put through a process by means of which they are made as nice and soft as a piece of buckskin or chamois-skin,— or, if it be a fawn reindeer, as soft as a piece of kid. This is done by scraping them with a peculiarly shaped instrument which tears off all the flesh that may have adhered, and scrapes away the inner thick skin that makes the hide so stiff and unpliable. When the skins are thick and heavy, the men do the work, for it is then very difficult; but otherwise the women, and very often the little girls, scrape the skins and give the finishing touches, and then make them up into coats, dresses, stockings, slippers, and all sorts of clothing.

For cutting these reindeer skins into shapes for garments, a very queer kind of scissors is used.

It is, in fact, a kind of knife, and an odd knife at that. It looks very much like the knife that is used by saddlers and harness-makers; and when it is used in cutting, it is always shoved away from the person using it. This knife is used for everything that is to be done in the way of cutting, from seal and reindeer skin to the thinnest and most fragile strings. At meals, too, some one will put to his mouth a great piece of blubber or fish as big as your fist, seize as much as he can with his teeth, grasp the rest in his hand, and cut off a huge mouthful with this knife. If you were watching him, you would feel certain that he would slice off his nose in this awkward movement, but the Eskimo are so very dexterous

that there is not the slightest danger of such an accident.

When the reindeer skins have been dressed, and made up into garments, and these have been put on,-girls and boys, men and women, are dressed so nearly alike, that at any considerable distance you cannot tell them apart. And just

The Eskimo girl wears a long apron. over her shoulders, her coat-sleeves swell out into large pockets; and in her stockings, just above the outer part of the ankles, she also has pockets, in which she keeps her sewing, moss for lampwicking, a roll of sinew for thread, and any other similar article that she may need to carry with her.

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THREE little flies in the room, on a pane
Three little flies just outside, in the rain.

Said the three little flies as they hummed on the pane,

To the three little flies who were out in the rain :

"Don't you wish you were here on this side of the pane,

Instead of out there in the cold and the rain? And then we must tell you there 's dinner a-cooking,

Though, really and truly, we haven't been looking."

Said the three little flies outside in the rain To the three little flies inside on the pane: "We think it's much nicer out. here in the rain

Than shut up where you are, inside on the pane;

And then there's more fun than the boys have at ball

In dodging the rain-drops as fast as they fall."

And now I am sure that my lesson is plain: Whenever you feel there is cause to complain, Remember the three little flies on the pane, And the three little flies just outside in the rain.

AMONG THE LAW-MAKERS.* (Recollections of a Page in the United States Senate.)

CHAPTER XVI.

AULD LANG SYNE.

BY EDMUND ALTON.

AND now, in this month sacred to Independence Day, let us consider some of the memorable facts in regard to that great epoch in our national career. Of course, every young patriot knows all about the origin of the Declaration of Independence; the struggles and privations endured and the obstacles overcome by our forefathers; the noble zeal of the statesmen representing the people in the Continental Congress; the achievements of our battle-heroes both on land and on sea. From Lexington to Yorktown, you can easily follow the path of war.

But though familiar with the causes that resulted in the independence of the colonies, you may not know the course of events that led to the formation of the republic and the creation of its present form of government, nor of the difficulties that accompanied the nation during the early period of its career. You perhaps do not know that the most arduous task remained to be done after the war had closed. Liberty had been secured. How was it to be maintained? That was the great question to which Washington, Franklin, Hamilton, and other leaders of the people applied the power of their minds.

The great "Continental Congress," consisung of representatives of the colonies, immortalized itself by the Declaration of Independence on the Fourth of July, 1776. It convened at Carpenter's Hall (since known as Independence Hall), in the city of Philadelphia, on the 10th of May, 1775, and continued in session until 1781.

While the Declaration of Independence was still under consideration in Congress, but before final action upon it, a resolution was passed (June 11, 1776), appointing a committee

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by all the colonies and signed by their authorized delegates in March, 1781. In the same month, the First Congress under the new arrangement convened.

To this confederacy, thus entered into, was given the name of "The United States of America,” but the States comprising it were like so many empires. They did nothing more than enter into a friendly league or partnership, in which each State retained its "sovereignty, freedom, and power"—in other words, each State had supreme control over its own affairs, and the Congress itself could only meet and discuss what ought to be done, without having the power to say what should be done or to enforce obedience. Congress could give advice, but the States could follow it or disregard it, as they chose.

Such a league, therefore, was found to be but a worthless arrangement. To be sure, it could have done no harm, even had it tried; but the purpose in establishing it was to derive some benefit from it; and the people soon discovered that it was unable to do any work at all.

The upshot of the whole matter was that Congress advised that a convention of delegates, to be appointed by the States, should be held at Philadelphia on the 14th of May, 1787, to suggest some "remedy" (to quote the words of the resolution) for these "defects"; and the representatives were accordingly chosen, and assembled on the 25th — eleven days later than the time fixed.

These delegates were merely to "revise" the articles of confederation, and report their opinions to Congress and the various State legislatures. But after a brief deliberation, they came to the conclusion that it was better to construct an entirely new federation, vested with complete powers. In other words, they resolved, on the 29th of May, "That a national government ought to be established, consisting of a supreme government, legislative, executive, and judiciary."

With this in view, they began their work, and kept steadily at it until they had finished. It was a memorable event that gathering of free and independent States, quietly arranging to merge their own sovereign rights into one mighty authority, protective, general, central, and supreme! one of the grandest spectacles, as has been said, recorded in the annals of the world! And this,

Copyright, 1884, by Edmund Alton. All rights reserved.

boys and girls, is the wonderful story that is epitomized in the motto of our republic:

E PLURIBUS UNUM!-"One composed of many." George Washington was chosen to preside over that great constitutional convention. Finally, on September 17, after a consultation of four months, it forwarded its report, and presented to the Congress of the Confederation the form of "a more perfect Union" and government for that Union. This was the Constitution to which I have so frequently referred, and it was speedily transmitted by Congress to the various State legislatures, "in order to be submitted to a convention of delegates chosen in each State by the people thereof."

It is needless to dwell upon the ordeal of criticism that it underwent in the State conventions. Eleven of the thirteen States having given their assent, in the mode of formal ratification,* the new Union and government came into existence, and the First Constitutional Congress of the United States assembled in the city of New York on the 4th of March, 1789.

That Congress met in joint convention, and counted the electoral votes previously cast for President and Vice-President. This action resulted in declaring George Washington and John Adams duly elected to the respective offices for the first term. On the 21st of that month, Mr. Adams was, with proper courtesies, received by the Senate and "introduced to the chair"; and on the 30th, as I have already described, General Washington was inaugurated as President of the United States.

CHAPTER XVII.

GOVERNMENT.

HAVING thus recalled the several historic steps by which our Government was formed, let me now endeavor to help you to comprehend the theory as well as the workings of that Government. To properly understand the interests intrusted to the Federal law-makers, it is necessary to remember that at the time of the Revolution the people of this country were gathered into various "communities" or "societies," called "colonies," under a certain form of "government," which they found did not protect their interests as it should have done. They declared themselves "free and independent," and, in doing this, asserted, in the following words, the great principle which I have explained :

"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalien

able Rights; that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying the foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.”

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So they threw off the government of the King of England, not only as a matter of "right," but as a matter of " duty" to themselves and children, and provided "new guards for their future security." Instead of "nations," they called their communities "states"; and the people of each State agreed upon a new arrangement, or government, and appointed the necessary officers to attend to the objects of that government.

But they all were engaged, during the Revolution, in fighting one great enemy. They had, therefore, a common interest; and so they said, "Let us join hands, and help one another." They did so,- and they won the fight.

But after they had won, the people of the various States found that they were not only likely to be attacked again by a common enemy, but that they were also likely to get into wrangles among themselves. The people of each State had declared themselves free and independent; they had had enough of fealty to a superior power; they resolved to be their own sovereigns and govern themselves, and thus "assume among the nations of the earth, that separate and equal station to which the laws of Nature and of Nature's God" entitled them.

It was, therefore, but natural that they should have been disinclined to create and arm with wealth and power a general government, that might also be made to wield, some day, the scepter of tyranny and oppression, and crush out the independence of the States and the lives and liberties of the people. They had writhed under the lash of a king, and they did not wish to establish a "system" that might eventually become a worse despotism than that which they had escaped. So they said, "Let us enter into some sort of arrangement, and appoint some men to make certain rules, which shall be for our union and guidance. And they did. They entered into the "Articles of Confederation." But, as I have explained, this alliance of interests was found to be unsatisfactory. Once more the States counseled together, and through their representatives determined to make a wiser and more helpful arrangement, that, in the words of these representatives, should “secure a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, pro

* The remaining States (North Carolina and Rhode Island) added theirs later on.
That is, born to equal rights.

mote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity"; and they determined to appoint men enough and to give them power enough not only to prescribe, but to carry out the regulations necessary to these common and general needs.

Yet they made a very natural and proper condition. The people of New York, for instance, said: "Now, we have already a government and officers of our own. We have certain interests which do not affect the people of Virginia or the people of other States; and we should prefer that these officers should continue to attend to these special interests, because they are familiar with our local affairs and wants, and can assist us, in those matters, better than officers appointed from other States." And the people of Virginia and other States said: "That suits us; for we, too, have special interests and governments and officers of our own, and we prefer our local officers to attend to our special wants." And it was accordingly agreed that the people of the States should retain their various State governments, with the understanding, however, that the State officers should not meddle with things that concerned the people of other States, and that, on the other hand, the Federal Government and its officers should not interfere with the State governments or officers except in such matters as concerned the general and common interests of all the people, or about which there might be conflict or ill feeling between the people of two or more States.

This agreement and arrangement is the Constitution. The people of all the States thereupon became one great nation, with a great Federal Government; and the people of each State retained their local governments.

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But you are not to look upon this Federal Government, or Republic, as a "club," or regard it as simply a sort of "constabulary," or 'police force." It has a grander purpose than to lock people up, and preserve order in the streets. The United States is a mighty nation. It represents the "sovereignty" of fifty millions of people. The officers of government are but the agents appointed by the people; and the people have a right to remove those officers, whenever they desire other or better men to act for them. government was created by the people,in the exercise of their own sovereign authority"; it was established for their benefit and welfare; and it is managed by the people, through agents chosen and paid by them. And these three great facts are embraced in the memorable words of Presi* See Sec. VIII., Cl. 18.

The

dent Lincoln that I have taken all this space to bring to your attention, that the Government of the United States of America is:

"A government of the people, by the people, and for the people."

And I have made this explanation that you may understand the important principles which were voiced by the very preamble of the Constitution, and which speak in all our institutions and our laws!

CHAPTER XVIII.

THOSE WHO EXECUTE THE LAWS AND THOSE WHO INTERPRET THEM.

OUR first law-makers patriotically began at once to organize and equip the various branches of the governmental service, and otherwise meet the intentions and requirements of the Constitution.* They promptly arranged for defraying the expenses of the new government by the levying of taxes. Then followed various enactments, establishing certain executive departments, and furnishing them with clerks and other assistants. They also passed the important "Judiciary Act," which created a system of Federal courts, thus organizing the third "coördinate" branch of the government, and putting into operation the mighty machinery of national law and justice.

During their second and third sessions, moreover, the members of the First Congress established the permanent seat of government at Washington, D. C.; attended to banking and currency questions; arranged for the payment of the public debt incurred prior to the new form of government in maintaining the interests of the people; and supplied other wants of the nation. Their labors have been continued by subsequent Congresses, so that now the Federal Government is a marvelous contrivance of thoroughness and order.

Let us look at the result of all this legislation of the law-makers, so far as it bears upon the general plan of the two other branches of the system,- the law-executors and law-interpreters.

The executive power is, by the Constitution, vested in the President; ‡ but the business intrusted to the executive, power is distributed, under the provisions of numerous enactments, among seven "established executive departments," as follows:

1. The Department of State.
2. The Department of War.

3. The Department of the Treasury.
4. The Department of Justice.
5. The Post-office Department.

The struggle over this question had been started some years before, under the Confederation, and was fiercely continued by the First Congress, members from various sections contending for different localities. The present location was agreed upon as a "compromise," but actual possession of it by the Departments of Government was not taken until the autumn of the year 1800.

Constitution, Art. II., Sec. I., Cl. 1.

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