f. Avoid mixed metaphors. 7. Choice of words. a. Use words presumably familiar to the reader. b. Use words that express your exact meaning. Do not confuse similar words. c. Avoid the frequent use of the same word (Section 17). 8. Ambiguity of thought must be avoided. Care must be exercised in the use of the forms which show relations in thought between sentences, especially with pronouns and pronominal adjectives (Section 36). 9. A paragraph is a group of sentences related to each other and to one central idea. 10. The topic statement of a paragraph is a brief comprehensive summary of the contents of the paragraph. 11. Methods of paragraph development. A paragraph may be developed — a. By giving specific instances (Section 44). (1) The order of their occurrence in time (Section 46). (2) Their position in space (Section c. By comparison or contrast (Section 48). f. By any suitable combination of the above. 12. The topical recitation demands - a. That the pupil get the central idea of the paragraph and be able to make the topic statement. b. That he be able to determine the relative importance of the remaining ideas in the paragraph. c. That he know by which of the five methods named above the paragraph has been devel oped. d. That he be able to furnish details, instances, and comparisons of his own. tions 37, 38, 39, 52, 53.) (See Sec IV. THE PURPOSE OF EXPRESSION 54. Kinds of Composition. When considered with rererence to the purpose in the mind of the writer, there are two general classes of writing, that which informs, and that which entertains. The language that we use should make our meaning clear, arouse interest, and give vividness. Writing that informs will lay greater emphasis on clearness, though it may at the same time be interesting and vivid. We do not add to the value of an explanation by making it dull. On the other hand, writ-. ing that entertains, though it must be clear, will lay greater emphasis on interest and vividness. That language is best which combines all three of these characteristics. The writer's purpose will determine to which the emphasis shall be given. Composition is also divided into description, narration, exposition, and argument (including persuasion). These are called forms of discourse. It will be found that this division is also based upon the purpose for which the composition is written. You all have occasion to use each of these daily; you describe, you narrate, you explain, you argue, you persuade. You have used language for these purposes from your infancy, and you are now studying composition in order to acquire facility and effectiveness in that use. When this chapter is completed, you will have considered each in an elementary way. A more extended treatment of each is given in later chapters BROOKS'S RHETORIC 8 EXERCISES A. To which of the two general classes of composition would each of the following belong? 1. A business letter. 2. The story of a runaway. 3. A description of a lake written by a geologist. 4. A description of a lake written by a boy who was camping near it. 5. A letter to a friend describing a trip. 6. A text-book on algebra. 7. An application for a position as stenographer. 8. A recipe for making cake. 9. How I made a cake. 10. How to make a kite. 11. A political speech. 12. A debate. B. Could a description be written for the purpose of entertaining? Could the same object be described for the purpose of giving information? C. To which general class do narratives belong? Explanations? Arguments? 55 Discourse Presupposes an Audience. The object of composition is communication, and communication is not concerned with one's self alone. It always involves two,-the one who gives and the one who receives. If its purpose is to inform, it must inform somebody; if to entertain, it must entertain somebody. To be sure, discourse may be a pleasure to us, because it is a means of self-expression, but it is useful to us because it conveys ideas to that other somebody who hears or reads it. We describe in order that another may picture that which we have experienced; we narrate events for the entertainment of others; we explain to others that which we understand; and we argue in order to prove to some one the truth of a proposition or to persuade him to action. Thus all discourse, to be useful, demands an audience. Its effective use requires that the writer shall give quite as much attention to the way in which that reader will receive his ideas as he gives to the ideas themselves. "Speaking or writing is, therefore, a double-ended process. It springs from me, it penetrates him; and both of these ends need watching. Is what I say precisely what I mean? That is an important question. Is what I say so shaped that it can readily be assimilated by him who hears? This is a question of quite as great consequence and much more likely to be forgotten. . . As I write I must unceasingly study what is the line of least intellectual resistance along which my thought may enter the differently constituted mind; and to that line I must subtly adjust, without enfeebling my meaning. Will this combination of words or that make the meaning clear? Will this order of presentation facilitate swiftness of apprehension or will it clog the movement?"1 In the preceding chapters emphasis has been laid upon the care that a writer must give to saying exactly what he means. This must never be neglected, but we need to add to it a consideration of how best to adapt what we say to the interest and intelligence of our readers. It will become clear in writing the following theme that the discussion of paragraph development in Chapter III was in reality a discussion of methods of adapting our discourse to the mental habits of our readers. 1 Professor George Herbert Palmer: Self-cultivation in English. |