XI. ARGUMENT

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170. Difference between Argument and Exposition. Argument differs from exposition in its purpose. exposition we endeavor to make clear the meaning of a proposition; by argument we attempt to prove its truth. If a person does not understand what we mean, we explain; if, after he does understand, he does not believe, we argue.

Often a simple explanation is sufficient to convince. As soon as the reader understands the real meaning of a proposition, he accepts our view of the case. A heated discussion may end with the statement, "Oh, if that is what you mean, I agree with you." In Section 70, we have learned that the first step in argument is explanation, by which we make clear the meaning of the proposition whose truth we wish to establish. This may include both the expounding of the terms in the proposition and the explanation of the proposition as a whole.

This suggests another difference between exposition and argument, for we cannot argue about single terms, though we may explain them. We may explain what is meant by the term elective studies, or civil service; but an argument requires a proposition such as, Pupils should be allowed to choose their own studies, or, Civil Service should be established. Even with such a topic as Expansion or Restricted Immigration, which seems to be a subject of argument, there is really an implied proposition under discussion; as, The United States should acquire

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control of territory outside of its present boundaries; or, It should be the policy of our government to restrict immigration. We may explain the meaning of single terms or of propositions, but in order to argue, we must have a proposition either expressed or implied.

171. Proposition of Fact and Proposition of Theory. Some propositions state facts and some propositions state theories. Every argument therefore aims either to prove the occurrence of a fact or the truth of a theory. The first would attempt to show the actual or probable truth of a specific proposition; for example: —

Nero was guilty of burning Rome.
Joan of Arc was burned at the stake.

Barbara Frietchie actually existed.

Sheridan never made the ride from Winchester.

Homer was born at Chios.

The second would try to establish the probable truth of a general theory; for example : —

A college education is a profitable investment.
Light is caused by a wave motion of ether.

The subject about

172. Statement of the Proposition. which we argue may be stated in any one of the three forms discussed in Section 74; that is, as a declarative sentence, a resolution, or a question. The statement does not necessarily appear first in the argument, but it must be clearly formulated in the mind of the writer before he attempts to argue. Before trying to convince others he must know exactly what he himself believes, and the attempt to state his belief in the form of a proposition will assist in making his own thought clear and definite. If we are going to argue concerning elective studies, we should first of all be sure that we understand the meaning

of the term ourselves. Then we must consider carefully what we believe about it, and state our proposition so that it shall express exactly this belief. On first thought we may believe the proposition that pupils should be allowed to choose their own studies. But is this true of all pupils in the grades as well as in the high schools? Or is it true only of the upper classes in the high school or only for college students? Can you state this proposition so that it will express your own belief on the subject?

1. The United States should adopt a free-trade policy.

2. Is vivisection justifiable?

3. The author has greater influence than the orator.

4. The civil service system should be abolished.

5. The best is always cheapest.

C. Can you restate the following propositions so that the meaning of each will be made more definite?

1. Athletics should be abolished.

exercises be abolished?)

(Should all athletic

2. Latin is better than algebra. (Better for what purpose? Better for whom?)

3. Training in domestic arts and

sciences should be provided for high school pupils. (Define domestic arts and sciences. Should they be taught to all high school pupils ?)

4. Punctuality is more important than efficiency.

5. The commercial course is better than the classical

course.

6. A city should control the transportation facilities within its limits.

Theme XCVI. -Write out an argument favoring one of the propositions as restated in Exercise C above. (Before writing, make a brief as indicated in Section 77. Consider the arrangement of your argument.)

173. Clear Thinking Essential to Argument. — Having clearly in mind the proposition which we wish to prove, we next proceed to give arguments in its support. The very fact that we argue at all assumes that there are two sides to the question. If we hope to have another accept our view we must present good reasons. We cannot convince another that a proposition is true unless we can tell him why it is true; and certainly we cannot tell him why until we know definitely our own reasons for believing the statement. In order to present a good argument we must be clear logical thinkers ourselves; that is, we must be able to state definite reasons for our beliefs and to draw the correct conclusions.

174. Inductive Reasoning. One of the best preparations for trying to convince others is for us to consider carefully our own reasons for believing as we do. Minds act in a similar manner, and what leads you and me to believe certain truths will be likely to cause others to believe them also. A brief consideration of how our belief in the truth of a proposition has been established will indicate the way in which we should present our material in order to cause others to believe the same proposition. If you ask yourself the question, What leads me to believe as I

do? the answer will undoubtedly be effective in con vincing others.

Are the following propositions true or false? Why do you believe or refuse to believe each ?

1. Maple trees shed their leaves in winter.

2. Dogs bark.

3. Kettles are made of iron.

4. Grasshoppers jump.

5. Giraffes have long necks.

6. Raccoons sleep in the daytime.

7. The sun will rise to-morrow.

8. Examinations are not fair tests of a pupil's knowledge. 9. Honest people are respected.

10. Water freezes at 32° Fahrenheit.

11. Boys get higher standings in mathematics than girls do.

It is at once evident that we believe a proposition such as one of these, because we have known of many examples. If we reject any of the propositions it is because we know of exceptions (we have seen kettles not made of iron), or because we do not know of instances (we may never have seen a raccoon, and so do not know what he does in the daytime). The greater the number of cases which have occurred without presenting an exception, the stronger our belief in the truth of the proposition (we expect the sun to rise because it has never failed).

The process by which, from many individual cases, we establish the truth of a proposition is called inductive reasoning.

175. Establishing a General Theory. A general theory is established by showing that for all known particular cases it will offer an acceptable explanation. By