history. Conftan- reduced. Having then no other enemies to contend tinopolitan with, he entered Macedon at the head of a powerful army; and having ravaged the country far and near, he took and plundered Theffalonica, as he did alfo moft of the cities of Etolia, Phocis, and Boeotia. From Greece he marched into Servia; which country he foon reduced. He next broke into the dominions of the king of Hungary, and befieged the ftrong city of Belgrade; but here he met with a vigorous repulfe, no fewer than 15,000 Turks being flain by the Chriftians in one fally, which obliged the fultan to drop the enterprize and retire. 159 Success of niades a gainst the Turks. 160 In his retreat he was attacked by the celebrated John Hun- John Hunniades, who cut great numbers of his men in pieces, and obliged the reft to fly with precipitation. Not long after he gained a ftill more complete victory over the enemy in the plains of Tranfylvania, with the lofs of only 3000 of his own men, whereas 20,000 of the Turks were killed on the field of battle, and almost an equal number in the purfuit. Amurath, who was then at Adrianople, sent an army into Tranfylvania far more numerous than the former; but they were attended with no better fuccefs, being cut off almoft to a man by the brave Hungarian. He gained feveral other victories no less remarkable; He is at laft but was at laft entirely defeated in 1448; and with this defeat ended all hopes of preferving the Roman empire. The unhappy emperor was now obliged to pay an annual tribute of 300.000 afpers to the fultan; and to yield up to him fome ftrong holds which he ftill held on the Euxine Sea. However, as he doubted not but Amurath would foon attempt to become mafter of the city itfelf, he renewed the union between the Greek and Latin churches, hoping that this would induce the western princes to affift him in the defence of the city against the Turks. This union produced great disturbances, which the emperor did not long furvive, but died in 1448, leaving the empire, now confined within the walls of Conftantinople, to his brother Conftantine. defeated. Amurath the Turkish fultan died in 1450, and was fucceeded by his fon Mohammed. In the beginning of his reign he entered into an alliance with Conftantine, and pretended a great defire to live in friendfhip with him and the other Chriftian princes; but no fooner had he put an end to a war in which he was engaged with Ibrahim king of Caramania, than he built a strong fort on the European fide of the Bofphorus, oppofite to another in Afia; in both of which he placed ftrong garrifons. Thefe two caitles commanded the Straits; and the former being but five miles from the city, kept it in a manner blocked up. This foon produced a mifunderstanding between him and the emperor, which ended in the fiege of the city. The fiege commenced on the fixth of April 1453nople befie- Mohammed's numerous forces covering the plains beged by Mo-fore it on the land-fide, and a fleet of 300 fail blockKammed. ing it up by fea. The emperor, however, had taken care to fecure the haven, in which were three large fhips, 20 fmall ones, and a great number of galleys, by means of a chain drawn crofs the entrance. Mohammed began the fiege by planting batteries as near the city as he could, and raifing mounts in feveral places as high as the walls themfelves, whence the befieged were inceffantly galled with fhowers of arrows. 161 Conftanti history. He had in his camp a piece of ordnance of prodigious Confian fize, which is faid to have carried a ball of 100 pounds tinopolitan weight made of hard black ftone brought from the Euxine Sea. With this vaft piece the enemy made feveral breaches in the walls; which, however, were repaired with incredible expedition by the befieged. But Mohammed, the better to carry on the fiege, caufed new levies to be made throughout his extenfive dominions, by which his army was foon increased to near 400,000 men; while the garrifon confifted only of 9000 regular troops, viz. 6000 Greeks and 3000 Genoefe and Venetians. As the enemy continued to batter the walls day and night without intermiffion, a great part of them was at last beaten down; but while the Turks were busy in filling up the ditch, in order to give the affault, a new wall was built. This threw the tyrant into a prodigious rage, which was greatly heightened when he faw his whole fleet worfted by five fhips, four of which were laden with corn from Peloponnefus, and the others with all manner of provifions from the ifle of Chios. Thefe opened themfelves a way through the whole Turkish fleet; and, to the inexpreffible joy of the Chriftians, at laft got fafe into the harbour. 162 over land The Turks attempted several times to force the ha- He conveys ven; but all their efforts proving ineffectual, Moham-80 galleys med formed a design of conveying 80 galleys over land into the ha for the space of eight miles into it. This he accom- ven. plished by means of certain engines, the contrivance of a renegado; and having then either taken or funk all the fhips contained in it, he caused a bridge to be built over it with furprising expedition. By this means the city was laid open to an affault from that fide likewife. The place was now affaulted on all fides; and Conftantine being well apprifed that he could not long hold out againft fuch a mighty fleet and fo numerous an army, fent deputies to Mohammed, offering to acknowledge himself his vaffal, by paying him yearly what tribute he fhould think proper to impofe, provided he raised the fiege and withdrew. The tyrant anfwered that he was determined at all events to become mafter of the city but if the emperor delivered it up forthwith, he would yield up to him Peloponnefus, and other provinces to his brothers, which they fhould enjoy peaceably as his friends and allies: but if he held out to the laft extremity, and fuffered it to be taken by affault, he would put him and the whole nobility to the fword, abandon the city to be plundered by his foldiers, and carry the inhabitants into captivity. This condition was rafhly rejected by the emperor; who thereby involved himself and all his subjects in the moft terrible calamity. The fiege was renewed with more vigour than ever, and continued till the 25th of May; when a report being spread in the Turkish camp A muuny 363 that a mighty army was advancing in full march to the in the relief of the city under the conduct of the celebrated Turkish John Hunniades, the common foldiers, feized with a camp. panic, began to mutiny, and prefs Mohammed in a tumultuous manner to break up the fiege. Nay, they openly threatened him with death, if he did not immediately abandon the enterprize and retire from before the city, which they defpaired of being able to reduce before the arrival of the fuppofed fuccours. Moham med was upon the point of complying with their de mand, ] Conften mand, when he was advifed by Zagan, a Turkish oftinopolitan ficer of great intrepidity, and an irreconcileable enemy history. to the Christian name, to give without lofs of time a general affault. To this he faid the foldiery, how ever mutinous, would not be averfe, provided the fultan folemnly promifed to abandon the city to be plundered by them. As fuch an advice beft fuited the humour of Mohammed, he readily embraced it; and caufed a proclamation to be published throughout the camp, declaring, that he gave up to his foldiers all the wealth of that opulent city, requiring to himfelf only the empty houfes. ven. 164 The defire of plunder foon got the better of that fear which had feized the Turkish army; and they un'animously defired to be led on to the attack. Hereupon Conftantine was fummoned for the laft time to deliver up the city, with a promife of his life and liberty; but to this he answered, that he was unalterably determined either to defend the city or to perith A general with it. The attack began at three in the morning affault gion Tuesday the 29th of May; fuch troops were first employed as the fultan valued leaft, and defigned them for no other purpose than to tire the Christians, who made a prodigious havock of that diforderly multitude. After the carnage had lafted fome hours, the Janizaries and other fresh troops advanced in good or der, and renewed the attack with incredible vigour. The Chriftians, fummoning all their courage and refolution, twice repulfed the enemy: but being in the end quite fpent, they were no longer able to land their ground; fo that the enemy in feveral places broke into the city. In the mean time Juftiniani, the commander of the Genoefe and a felect body of Greeks, having received two wounds, one in the thigh and the other in the hand, was fo difheartened, that he caufed himself to be conveyed to Galata, where he foon after died of grief. His men, difmayed at the fudden flight of their general, immediately quitted their poits and fled in the utmost confufion. How Bravery of ever, the emperor, attended with a few of the most rethe empe- folute among the nobility, ftill kept his poft, ftriving with unparalleled refolution to oppose the multitude of barbarians that now broke in from every quarter. But being in the end overpowered with numbers, and feeing all his friends lie dead on the ground, "What! (cried he aloud), is there no Chriftian left alive to ftrike He had scarce uttered these words, off my head?"" when one of the enemy, not knowing him, gave him a deep cut across the face with his fabre; and at the fame time, another coming behind him, with a blow on the back part of his head laid him dead on the ground. After the death of the emperor, the few Chriftians that were left alive betook themfelves to The town flight; and the Turks, meeting with no further oppoplundered fition, entered the city, which they filled with blood and the in- and flaughter. They gave no quarter, but put all they met to the fword, without diftinction. Many thoufands took refuge in the church of St Sophia, but they were all maffacred in their afylum by the enraged bar barians; who, prompted by their natural cruelty, the defire of revenge, and love of booty, fpared no place nor perfon. Most of the nobility were, by the fultan's orders, cut off, and the reft kept for purposes more grievous than death itfelf. Many of the inhabitants, among whom were fome men of great learning, found ror. 165 166 He is killed. 167 habitats maffacred. N° 90. means to make their efcape while the Turks were bu- Conftanfied in plundering the city. Thefe embarking on five tinopolitan history. fhips then in the harbour, arrived fafe in Italy; where, with the ftudy of the Greek tongue, they revived the liberal fciences, which had long been neglected in the Weft. After the expiration of three days, Mohammed commanded his foldiers to forbear all further hoftilities on pain of death; and then put an end to as cruel a pillage and maffacre as any mentioned in hiftory. The next day he made his public and triumphal entry into Conftantinople, and chofe it for the feat of the Turkish empire, which it has continued to be ever fince. 163 This city is now called by the Turks Ilampol, and Present by the Greeks Iftampoli or Stampoli. It is feated at state of the the eastern extremity of Romania, on a small neck of city. land which advances towards Natolia, from which it is separated by a channel of a mile in breadth. The fea of Marmora wathes its walls on the south, and a gulph of the channel of Conftantinople does the fame on the north. It is delightfully fituated between the Black Sea and the Archipelago, from whence it is fupplied with all neceffaries. The grand feignior's palace, called the Seraglio, is feated on the fea-fide, and is furrounded with walls flanked with towers, and feparated from the city by canals. It is faid the harbour will eafily hold 1200 fhips. The number of houses muft needs be prodigious, fince one fire has burnt down 30,000 in a day, without greatly changing the afpect of the city. However, in general, they are but mean, especially on the outfide, where there are few or no windows; and the streets being narrow, gives them a melancholy look. They reckon that there are 3770 ftreets, small and great but they are feldom or never clean; and the people are infefted with the plague almoft every year. The inhabitants are half Turks, two-thirds of the other half Christians, and the reft Jews. Here are a great number of ancient monuments ftill remaining, and particularly the fuperb temble of Sophia, which is turned into a mofque. and far fui paffes all the reft. The ftreet called Adri anople is the longest and broadeft in the city; and the bazars, or bezelteins, are the markets for felling all forts of merchandize. The old and the new are pretty near each other; and are large fquare buildings, covered with domes, and fupported by arches and pilafters. The new is the beft, and contains all forts of goods which are there expofed to fale. The market for flaves, of both fexes, is not far off; and the Jews are the principal merchants, who bring them here to be fold. There are a great number of young girls brought from Hungary, Greece, Candia, Ruflia, Mingrelia, and Georgia, for the fervice of the Turks, who generally buy them for their feraglios. The great fquare, near the mofque of fultan Bajazet, is the place for public divertions, where the jugglers and mountebanks play a great variety of tricks. The circumfe rence of this city is by fome faid to be 15 miles, and by Mr Tournefort 23 miles; to which if we add the fuburbs, it may be 34 miles in compafs. The fuburb called Pera is charmingly fituated; and is the place where the ambaffadors of England, France, Venice, and Holland, refide. This city is built in the form of a triangle; and as the ground rifes gradually, there is a view of the whole town from the fea. The public buildings, N. Lat. 41. 42 CONSTAT, in law, the name of a certificate which the clerk of the pipe and auditors of the exchequer make at the requeft of any perfon who intends to plead or move in that court for the difcharge of any thing; and the effect of it is, the certifying what does conftare upon record touching the matter in queftion.-A conftat is held to be fuperior to a certificate; because this may err or fail in its contents; that cannot, as certifying nothing but what is evident upon record. Alfo the exemplification under the great feal of the inrolment of any letters patent is called a conftat. CONSTELLATION, in astronomy, a fyftem of feveral ftars that are feen in the heavens near to one another. Aftronomers not only mark out the ftars, but, that they may better bring them into order, they diftinguish them by their fituation and pofition in refpect to each other; and therefore they diftribute them into afterifms or conftellations, allowing feveral stars to make up one conftellation: and for the better diftinguishing and obferving them, they reduce the conftellations to the forms of animals, as men, bulls, bears, &c.; or to the images of fome things known, as of a crown, a harp, a balance, &c.; or give them the names of those whofe memories, in confideration of fome notable exploit, they had a mind to tranfmit to future ages. The divifion of the ftars by images and figures is of great antiquity, and feems to be as old as aftronomy itfelf: for in the moft ancient book of Job, Orion, Arcturus, and the Pleiades, are mentioned; and we meet with the names of many of the conftellations in the writings of the firft poets, Homer and Hefiod. The ancients, in their divifion of the firmament, took in only fo much as came under their notice, diftributing it into 48 conftellations; but the modern aftronomers comprehend the wholly ftarry firmament, dividing it into three regions. See ASTRONOMYIndex. CONSTERNATION is defined by ethical writers to be an excess of horror, owing to the ill government of our admiration and fear: or fuch an immoderate degree of fear as confounds the faculties, and incapacitates a perfon for confultation and execution. CONSTIPATION, in medicine, a hardnefs of the belly, with great coftivenefs. See COSTIVENESS. CONSTITUENT PART, in phyfiology, an effential part in the compofition of any thing, differing little from what is otherwife called element or principle. CONSTITUTION, in matters of policy, fignifies the form of government eftablished in any country or kingdom. CONSTITUTION alfo denotes an ordinance, decifion, regulation, or law, made by authority of any fuperior, ecclefiaftical or civil. VOL. V. Part I. Apoftolical CONSTITUTIONS, a collection of regula. Conftitu tions attributed to the apoftles, and supposed to have tion. been collected by St Clement, whofe name they likewife bear.. It is the general opinion, however, that they are fpurious, and that St Clement had no hand in them. They appeared firft in the 4th age, but have been much changed and corrupted fince that time. They are divided into eight books, confifting of a great number of rules and precepts, relating to the duties of Chriftians, and particularly the ceremonies and difcipline of the church. Mr Whifton, in oppofition to the general opinion, afferts them to be a part of the facred writings, dictated by the apoftles in their meetings, and written down from their own mouth by St Clement; and intended as a fupplement to the New Teftament, or rather as a fyftem of Chriftian faith and polity. The reason why the Constitutions are fufpected by the orthodox, and perhaps the reafon alfo why their genuineness is defended by Mr Whilton, is, that they feem to favour Arianism. CONSTITUTION, in a phyfical fenfe, fignifies the particular temperature of the body. It is curious to obferve, fays Dr Percival, the revolution which hath taken place, within this century, in the conftitutions of the inhabitants of Europe. Inflammatory difeafes more rarely occur, and, in general, are much lefs rapid and violent in their progrefs than formerly (A); nor do they admit of the fame antiphlogiftic method of cure that was practifed with fuccefs 10c years ago. The experienced Sydenham makes 40 ounces of blood the mean quantity to be drawn in the acute rheumatifm; whereas this disease, as it now appears in the London hospitals, will not bear above half that evacuation. Vernal intermittents are frequently cured by a vomit and the bark, without venefection; which is a proof that at present they are accompanied with fewer fymptoms of inflammation than they were wont to be. This advantageous change, however, is more than counterbalanced by the introduction of a numerous clafs of nervous ailments, in a great meafure unknown to our ancestors; but which now prevail univerfally, and are complicated with almost every other distemper. The bodies of men are enfeebled and enervated; and it is not uncommon to obferve very high degrees of irritability, under the external appearance of great ftrength and robuftnefs. The hypochondria, palfies, cachexies, dropfies, and all thofe difeafes which arife from laxity and debility, are in our days endemic every where; and the hysterics, which used to be peculiar to the women, as the name itself indicates, now attack both fexes indifcriminately. It is evident that fo great a revolution could not be effected without a concurrence of many cauíes; but amongft thefe (according to Dr Percival), the prefent general ufe of tea* holds the firft and principal Se Tea. rank. The fecond place may perhaps be allowed to excefs in fpirituous liquors. This pernicious custom, in many inftances at leaft, owes its rife to the former, 3 B which, (A) The decrease in the violence of inflammatory diseases may perhaps in part be afcribed to the present improved method of treating them. Moderate evacuations, cool air, acefcent diet, and the liberal ufe of faline and antimonial medicines, are better adapted to check the progrefs of fevers, than copious bleedings, i- mulating purgatives, and profufe sweats excited by theriaca and mithridate. Confualia. Conftrictor which, by the lownefs and depreffion of fpirits it occafious, renders it almoft neceffary to have recourfe to fomething cordial and exhilarating. And hence proceed thofe odious and difgraceful habits of intemperance, with which many of the fofter fex are now, alas! chargeable. CONSTRICTOR, an appellation given to several mufcles, on account of their conftringing or clofing fome of the orifices of the body. CONSTRICTION, in geometry, is the drawing fuch lines, fuch a figure, &c. as are previously neceffary for making any demonftration appear more plain and undeniable. CONSTRUCTION of Equations. See EQUATIONS. CONSTRUCTION, in grammar; fyntax, or the arranging and connecting the words of a fentence according to the rules of the language. See GRAMMAR, and LANGUAGE. The construction is generally more fimple, eafy, and direct, in the modern tongues than in the ancient: we have very few of those inverfions which occafion fo much embarraffment and obfcurity in the Latin; our thoughts are ufually delivered in the fame order wherein the imagination conceives them: the nominative cafe, for inftance, always precedes the verb, and the verb goes before the oblique cafes it governs. The Greeks and Latins, M. St. Evremont obferves, ufually end their periods, where, in good fenfe and reafon, they fhould have begun; and the elegance of their language confifts, in fome meafure, in this capricious arrangement, or rather in this tranfpofal and diforder of the words. See LANGUAGE. CONSTRUCTION of Statutes, among lawyers. See Law, Part II. no 49. CONSUALIA, in antiquity, feats which were held among the ancients, in honour of the god Confus i. e. Neptune; different from thofe other feafts of the fame deity called Neptunalia. They were introduced with a magnificent cavalcade, or proceffion on horfe back; because Neptune was reputed to have firft taught men the use of horfes; whence his furname of Lax, Equeftris. Evander is faid to have firft instituted this feast: it was re-established by Romulus, under the name of Confus; because it was fome god under the denomination of Confus, that fuggefted to him the rape of the Sabines. It is faid, that it was with a view to this rape that he made that establishment. This, however, is certain, that it was to this feast all his neighbours were invited; when, taking advantage of the folemnities and facrifices, he feized the women. To draw the greater concourse of people, he gave out, that he had found an altar hid under ground, which he intended to confecrate, with facrifices to the god to whom it had been originally erected. Those who take upon them to explain the mysteries of the heathen theology, fay, that the altar hid under ground, is a fymbol of the fecret design of Romulus to feize his neighbours wives. The confualia were of the number of feafts called facred; as being confecrated to a divinity.-Originally they were not diftinguished from thofe of the Circus: whence it is, that Valerius Maximus fays, that the rape of the Sabines was effected at the games of the Circus. Servius gives us to understand, that the confualia fell on the 13th of August, Plutarch, in the life of Romulus, places them on the 18th, and the old Roman calendar on the 21ft of that month. CONSUBSTANTIAL, in theology, a term of like import with co-effential; denoting fomething of the fame fubitance with another. The orthodox believe the Son of God to be confubflantial with the Father. The term μουσιος, confulflantial, was firft adopted by the fathers of the councils of Antioch and Nice, to exprefs the orthodox doctrine the more precifely, and to ferve as a barrier and precaution against the errors and fubtleties of the Arians; who owned every thing excepting the confubftantiality. The Arians allowed, that the word was God, as having been made God; but they denied that he was the fame God, and of the fame fubftauce with the Fa ther accordingly they exerted themfelves to the ut moft to abolish the ufe of the word. The emperor Conftantine used all his authority with the bishops to have it expunged out of the fymbols; but it ftill maintained itself, and is at this day, as it was then, the diftinguishing criterion between an Athanafian and an Arian. Sandius will have it, that the word confubftantial was unknown till the time of the council of Nice; but it is certain it had been before proposed to the council of Antioch, wherein Paulus Samofatenus had been condemned; though it had there the fortune to be rejected. Curcellæus, on the other hand, maintains, that it was an innovation in doctrine in the council of Nice, to admit an expreffion, the ufe whereof had been abolished by the council of Antioch. According to St Athanafius, the word confubftantial was only condemned in the council of Antioch, inafmuch as it implied the idea of a pre-existent matter, prior to the things formed thereof: now, in this fenfe, it is certain, the Father and the Son are not confubftantial, there having been no pre-exiftent matter. CONSUBSTANTIATION, a tenet of the Lutheran church with regard to the manner of the change made in the bread and wine in the eucharift. The divines of that profeffion maintain, that after confecration, the body and blood of our Saviour are fubftantially prefent, together with the fubftance of the bread and wine, which is called confubftantiation, or impanation. CONSUL, the chief magiftrate of the Roman commonwealth, invetted with regal authority for the space of one year. They were two in number, called confuls a confulendo, and annually chofen in the Campus Martius. The two firft confuls were L. Jun. Brutus, and L. Tarquinius Collatinus, chofen in the year of Rome 244, after the expulfion of the Tarquins. In the first times of the republic the two confuls were always chofen from Patrician families or noblemen, but the peo ple 1 folemnly protefted that they had done nothing against CONSUL, at prefent, is an officer established by vir- Conful. ple obtained the privilege in the year of Rome 388, At their return they harangued the people, and CONSUMMATION, the end, period, or comple- CONSUMMATION of Marriage, denotes the laft act of CONSUMPTION, in medicine, a word of very CONSUMPTION, in fatriery. See FARRIERY, § viii. SUALIA. CONTACT, is when one line, plane, or body, is CONTAGION, in phyfic, the communicating a CON- Conful Contagion, |