An in aqueous solution. The chlorine atom in these compounds is readily exchanged for the cyanogen group by treating with mercury, or, better, cuprous cyanide. account is given of the preparation and properties of several nitriles by this method.-Vicianine, a new cyanogenetic glucoside contained in vetch seeds: Gabriel Bertrand. Full details are given of the method adopted for extracting the glucoside from the seed. Vicianine contains 3.2 per cent. of nitrogen, the whole of which is set free as hydrocyanic acid by the action of emulsin.-Cytological observations on the germination of the seeds of Gramineaceæ: A. Guilliermond.-The concentration of chlorophyll and assimilating energy: W. Lubimenko.-A disease of Abies pectinata, accompanied by a reddening of the leaves: L. Mangin and P. Hariot. Several species of fungi were found on the infected leaves, and it is not yet clear to which of these the disease is due. To settle this point, inoculation tests with the various spores isolated will be carried out in the Cryptogam garden. The culture of the artificial cell: Stéphane Leduc. Experiments on the structures formed by a grain of copper sulphate placed in an aqueous solution containing from 2 per cent. to 4 per cent. of potassium ferrocyanide, 1 per cent. to 18 per cent. of sodium chloride or other salts, and from 1 per cent. to 4 per cent. of gelatin. The granule becomes surrounded by a membrane of copper ferrocyanide, permeable to water and certain ions, but impermeable to sugar. It is shown that the products of growth of these artificial seeds are sensitive to all chemical and physical actions. The growth is arrested by numerous poisons, and the direction of growth is determined by differences of temperature and osmotic pressure.-The action of Eriophyes passerinae on the leaves of Giardia hirsuta: C. Gerber.-The rôle of olefaction in the recognition of ants: H. Piéron.-Experimental researches on thermal 'troubles in cases of absolute privation of sleep: N. Vaschide. The privation of sleep induces a constant and sensible lowering of the body temperature. The first physiological effect of sleep is to restore the thermal equilibrium of the organism.-The physiological rôle of the yellow pigment of the macula: A. Polack. Contribution to the study of the hearing of fishes M. Marage. Fishes do not hear vowel sounds transmitted in the interior of the liquid, even although the energy of the sound is sufficiently great to be remarked by persons regarded as completely deaf.-Experimental researches on the lesions of the nervous centres following on insolation: G. Marinesco. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, DECEMBER 6. ROYAL SOCIETY, at 4.30.-A Comparison of Values of the Magnetic Elements deduced from the British Magnetic Survey of 1891 with Recent Observation: W. Ellis, F.R.S.-The Theory of the Compositions of Numbers, Part ii.: Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S.-On the Transpiration Current in Plants: Prof. H. H. Dixon.-The Theory of Photographic Processes, Part iii., The Latent Image and its Destruction: S. E. Sheppard and C. E. K. Mees.-The Chemistry of Globulin: W. Sutherland. CHEMICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30.-The Liquid Volume of a Dissolved Substance: J. S. Lumsden.-Some Derivatives of Renzophenone; Synthesis of Substances occurring in Coco-bark (preliminary notice): W. H. Perkin, jun., and R. Robinson.-A Synthesis of Terebic, Terpenylic and Homoterpenylic Acids: J. L. Simonsen. LINNEAN SOCIETY, at 8.-Papers: A Contribution to the Physiology of the INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.-Selection and Testing of MONDAY, DECEMBER 10. ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8. 30.-Irrigation in the United States; its Geographical and Economical Results: Major John H. Beacom. SOCIETY OF ARTS, at 8.-Artificial Fertilisers: Phosphatic Fertilisers A. D. Hall. TUESDAY, DECEMBER II. ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30. INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, at 8.-Discussion: The Talla Water supply of the Edinburgh and District Waterworks; Repairing a Lime; stone-concrete Aqueduct: and The Yield of Catchment Areas.-Probable Paper: Mechanical Considerations in the Design of High-tension Switchgear: H. W. E. Le Fanu. FARADAY SOCIETY, at 8.-(1) On the Electrochemistry of Lead; (2) Contributions to the Study of Strong Electrolytes: Dr. A. C. C. Cumming.Storage Batteries and their Electrolytes, Part ii.: R. W. Vicarey. WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 12. 問 SOCIETY OF ARTS, at 8.-Fruit Growing and Protection of Birds: Cecil THURSDAY, DECEMBER 13. ROYAL SOCIETY, at 4.30.-Probable Papers: On the Intensity of Lighti LONDON INSTITUTION, at 6.-Tadpoles-a Study in Embryology: Dr. MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY, at 5.30.-On the Form of the Surface-of a Search- PHYSICAL SOCIETY, 7 p.m. to 10 p.m.-Second Annual Exhibition of Elec INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, at 3.-Mechanical Improvements.in Ea Grossmann: "The Elements of Chemical Engineering' 125 Thomas: "Crystal Gazing. Its History and Practice, with a Discussion of the Evidence for Telepathic Scrying" 125 "The History of the Collections contained in the Natural History Departments of the British Museum," Vol. ii. Cecil: "Science and Religion THURSDAY, DECEMBER 13, 1906. THERE THE USE OF PRESERVATIVES. Preservatives in Food and Food Examination. By Dr. John C. Thresh and Dr. A. E. Porter. Pp. xvi+484. (London: J. and A. Churchill, 1906.) Price 14s. net. 'HERE is much knowledge enshrined in Parliamentary Blue-books, and doubtless some wisdom. Very often it remains enshrined in them. A better fate, however, has awaited the report of the Departmental Committee appointed by the President of the Local Government Board in 1899 "to inquire into the use of preservatives and colouring-matters in foodstuffs." Messrs. Thresh and Porter have taken this report partly as text, partly as sermon; amplifying it here, compressing it there, and adding, moreover, various allied matters not directly within the purview of the committee, they have produced a volume which will probably be consulted by hygienists when the original Blue-book lies almost forgotten in the archives of the Parliamentary bookseller. The matter is classified into five parts. In the first section the authors deal with the various methods adopted for preserving foods, and give a general description of preservatives, their pharmacological effects, and the experimental work which has been done upon them. For example, Wiley's investigation into the effects of boron compounds upon the human system is summarised, together with Liebreich's criticism of the results, and due note is made of important experiments by many other workers, including Chittenden, Rideal and Foulerton, Annett, and Tunnicliffe and Rosenheim. The second part is devoted to the principal foodstuffs into which preservatives enter, namely, milk, cream, butter, alcoholic and temperance beverages, fruits, vegetables, meat, eggs, and fish. Based upon information contained in the Departmental Committee's report, a short account of the substances is given, with figures showing the quantities of preservative used, and notes of the various circumstances affecting its employment. food is rendered cheaper; (2) that definite cases of illness or death have rarely or never been conclusively traced to the use of preservatives; and (3) that, on the contrary, during recent years the death-rate has declined, one of the assignable causes of this being the better feeding of the people resulting from cheaper food. On the other hand, it is urged that many cases of illness have, in fact, been indicated as probably due to preservatives. At the best these latter have not been proved harmless, and the most we can admit is that we really do not know what are the physiological effects of small amounts of the foregoing substances. But they are certainly harmful if taken in quantity, and may be so in any dose which would be effective as a germicide. Moreover, even if strong and healthy adults are unharmed by them, there are still children and invalids to consider. Again, it has been pointed out that the uncontrolled employment of preservatives is sometimes liable to great abuse without culpable carelessness on the part of any individual user. Boric acid, for example, may be added to milk first by the farmer, again by the wholesale distributer, then by one or more retailers, and possibly again by the consumer himself; and each may add the maximum allowable quantity. Generally, it may be said that we rarely or never know how much preservative any given food either ought to contain or does actually contain. The policy of our laws has been to allow food-producers a free hand, subject to the restriction that any preservative added shall not render the food injurious to health. But has this laissez faire attitude been a wise one? True, it leaves the food manufacturer free to experiment-which is, so far, good. But it gives him the consumer's living body as corpus vile-which is not so good. Naturally the consumer has some right of objection, and in any case the question of what is "injurious to health" has always to be fought out in the police court -about the worst place in which to decide such a matter. The most diverse decisions have been arrived at, and meanwhile the query whether or not we and our children are being caused unnecessary suffering remains unanswered. What would be the ideal way of treating such a problem if we could start afresh, and impose decrees modo tyranni? Surely it would be to say :-Let your salt, vinegar, and such like, as having by long usage proved themselves comparatively harmless, remain as they are. Let a responsible body be appointed, competent to examine the newer substances; let it hear what is to be said on either side, and let it make whatever experiments may be necessary and practicable to test the evidence. And let no preservative or colouring-matter whatever be added to foodstuffs until it has been at least provisionally approved by this responsible authority. A perusal of these two sections suggests strongly that the present state of affairs is by no means satisfactory as regards the use of chemical preservatives. Our policy has been a haphazard one. Preservatives of some kind-e.g. salt and vinegar-have been employed as far back as the memory of man carries us. The question is asked, Are these long-known substances the best possible for the purpose? Is it not conceivable that modern chemistry might find something better? Quite possibly it may; in fact so far as indicating antiseptics and germicides is concerned, the But there is the further question how far any. substance which is destructive of microbial and parasitical forms of life may also be inimical to the If this course is not practicable in its entirety now human organism. It is a question of quantity. On the that a number of more or less dubious substances have one hand we have the advocates of various preserving gained something of a footing, it is at least possible substances boric acid, formaldehyde, hydrogen per- to a very considerable extent. The authors of the oxide, sodium fluoride; salicylic, benzoic, formic, and volume before us give both sides of the question very sulphurous acids; asaprol, and so on—who argue (1) fairly—so fairly indeed that we are often reminded of that by the use of these and other means of preservation Mr. Facing-both-ways. But the impression left by a task is easy. careful perusal of their statements is that a competent and impartial body is required to, and could, draw up a schedule of substances and quantities which, on a review of all the evidence, might provisionally be considered as reasonably safe to use. The presumption should be that nothing ought to be added to food until it has been proved harmless; not, as at present, that a manufacturer may add anything he likes until it has ¡been shown to be injurious. Coming now to the remainder of the volume: colouring matters and mineral poisons, which may occur in food and drink, are dealt with in the third part, and the following section-a long and important one-is devoted to the study of unsound food. Notes on the principal diseases of animals and upon post-mortem appearances are appended, and directions are given for the bacteriological examination of shell-fish and of milk and other dairy produce, as also for the detection of toxins and ptomaines in foodstuffs. The concluding section is devoted to the chemical .examination of foods for preservatives and colouring matters, with a chapter on legal points. For the most part the analytical processes described are well-known methods, conveniently collected here, but otherwise calling for no special comment. In passing, however, it may be remarked that mannitol is easier and cleaner to use than glycerol in the volumetric determination of -boric acid. On the whole the volume is a trustworthy production, and may be accepted as the most useful compendium of the subject yet published. C. SIMMONDS. MATHEMATICS OF BODILY MOVEMENTS. Theoretische Grundlagen für eine Mechanik der lebender Körper. By Otto Fischer. Pp. x+372. (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1906.) Price 14 marks. A FAMILIARITY with the structure of the human body is but rarely combined with a competent knowledge of mathematics. So far as one may judge from published works, Prof. Otto Fischer is the sole representative of this combination of talents in Europe. But his attainments, from their very singularity, carry with them certain disadvantages; although he has diligently applied the methods of the mathematician to the elucidation of the movements of the human body for the last twenty years, he has raised neither rival, disciple, nor critic; his many publications have failed, apparently, to attract the attention of writers of text-books on anatomy and physiology. Prof. Fischer expresses the hope that his book will appeal to mathematicians and physicists on the one hand, and to anatomists and physiologists on the other; he has employed the most intelligible anatomical terms and descriptions for the benefit of the first, and reduced the necessary mathematical formulæ to their simplest expression for the second. Notwithstanding these attempts to form a common ground where mathematicians and anatomists may meet on equal terms, the writer of this notice finds the mathematics of this work difficult and wholly to be taken on trust, and he believes the vast majority of anatomists will experience a similar difficulty. Nor does he believe that the pure mathematician will easily understand the action of such muscles as the 'iliacus, "short head of the biceps," or "semimembranosus,' nor have a definite conception when he is told that the centre of gravity for the head lies between the "dorsum sellæ " and "posterior perforated lamina." as the The initial difficulties which the mathematician and anatomist will experience in studying this book may lead to its great merit being overlooked. In medical text-books the actions of muscles and of joints are described in crude snatches; when the student has finished his study he has no knowledge of the mechanism of the body as a whole. Prof. Fischer's aim is to give a picture of the living, moving body a complete machine; to estimate the manner in which the muscles work in producing definite movements of the body, and the amount of force expended in the production of these movements. For the purpose of his investigation he has divided the body into fourteen segments or masses, viz. the head, trunk, upper arm, fore arm, hand, thigh, leg, and foot; each of these he treats as a rigid mass; he estimates the centre of gravity for each. The centre of gravity for the trunk he found to be situated near the front of the upper border of the first lumbar vertebra. The mass or weight of each of these parts is estimated the trunk forming, in the average body, rather more than two-fifths of the whole. The methods applied to the study of machines cannot be used for the human body, where the joints have no fixed axes or fixed points. These difficulties Prof. Fischer seeks to overcome by establishing theoretical fixed axes and fixed points for the various i joints; he simplifies his problems, too, by the use of what he terms mass systems. Although Prof. Fischer has not been altogether successful in reaching the non-mathematical mind, we are certain he has given us in this unique book matter which both physicist and biologist may study with advantage. 66 GOETHE AS MINERALOGIST AND GEOLOGIST. Goethes Verhältnis zur Mineralogie und Geognosie. Rede gehalten zur Feier der akademischen Preisverteilung am 16 Juni, 1906. By Dr. G. Linck. Pp. 48. (Jena: G. Fischer, 1906.) Price 2 marks. THE poetic genius and fascinating personality of Goethe have so dazzled the world that the ordinary reader of "Faust" has never so much as suspected that its author could claim to be a distinguished man of science. Some, perhaps, who have studied the life of the poet may be aware of his discoveries in biology and his speculations in botany; others, again, may have heard of his excursion into the field of optics, and may have marvelled at the amazing aberration of his genius which led him to regard his unhappy attack on the Newtonian theory of colour as the proudest and most valuable achievement of his life; but that he accomplished anything of worth in mineralogy and geology is known to very few. It is, therefore, well that the professor of mineralogy no " *lv and geology at Jena has attempted to do justice to this Goethe, in fact, was by nature a realist, and even his ciation of crystallography was smaller still; witness his statement, "Crystallography is not productive-and leads to no results, especially now that so many isomorphous bodies have been discovered of different compositions." Goethe appears, indeed, to have regarded the progress of these sciences with some misgiving, for he says:— Mineralogy is in danger of being devoured by crystallography, where form is all-important. It is in danger of being devoured by chemistry, which looks only for general laws and is indifferent to form. It may also be in danger of being devoured by geology, for the latter is only concerned with modes of occurrence. "" As an adherent, then, of a system which had attained practically the fullest development of which it was capable, the field open to him was not extensive, but within its limits he did good work. His description of the Carlsbad felspar twins, for example, was excellent, and we owe many interesting observations to his studies on crystal-genesis and on the occurrence and associations of minerals. Among his collections, those from the neighbourhood of Carlsbad were the most important, but Thuringia, the Harz, and Italy were laid under contribution as well," for the mineralogist must be like a stag, and browse irrespective of frontiers." Early in his studies Goethe felt his weakness on the scientific side, and to remedy it caused W. Voigt to be sent to Freiberg. Voigt on his return instructed him in nomenclature, and he began to arrange and label his collections, for " every properly recorded observation is invaluable to posterity." His activity as a collector soon impressed on him the importance of good maps, and the interest thus stimulated led to the preparation of a mineralogical map of the Ilmenau district, subsequently extended to neighbouring regions. It bore further fruit in several practical suggestions as to the best method of printing and colouring such maps. The colour scheme employed to-day is in essentials that proposed by him. Perhaps Goethe makes his greatest claim to be considered a geologist by his attitude towards the problem of the history of the earth. Living at a time of conflict between Neptunists and Vulcanists, his mind was too well balanced to allow him to become a bigoted partisan or the slave of a hypothesis. The uniformity of nature was his watchword, and he never lost sight of this principle, whether discussing the erratic blocks of Northern Germany or the basalts of Bohemia. At the conclusion of his review of Goethe's essays in mineralogy and geology, Prof. Linck asks the pertinent question, Are such studies to be put aside with a smile and a shrug of the shoulders as the well-meant efforts of an amateur and nothing more? Prof. Linck thinks not. He points out that many contemporaries well qualified to judge thought highly of the work, and he holds that Goethe is justly entitled to an honourable place among the pioneers in mineralogy and geology. We venture to think that anyone who follows the case presented in his pages will endorse his verdict. THE CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF CELLULOSE. Researches on Cellulose, II. (1900-1905). By C. F. Cross and E. J. Bevan. Pp. xi+ 184. (London: Longmans, Green and Co.) Price 7s. 6d. net. the course of their extended researches on the chemistry of cellulose, the authors of this work have gradually become dissatisfied with all the numerous attempts which have from time to time been made to represent the chemical structure of this substance by means of ordinary constitutional formulæ. The fundamental basis for such a representation-the knowledge of the molecular weight— has always been and is still lacking, and in its absence the chemist has perforce limited himself to endeavouring to assign a chemical constitution to some comparatively small unit containing six, or some multiple of six, carbon atoms, and has usually regarded the complete unknown molecule of cellulose as a polymeride of this. A certain measure of success has attended these efforts, particularly as regards the relation of the final products of such processes as nitration or hydrolysis to the original "unit." The authors, however, consider all such formulæ to be totally inadequate to express the greater number of the chemical changes which cellulose is capable of undergoing. In place of the purely chemical idea of cellulose as a complex polymeride of preformed groups of rigid configuration, they propose to substitute the conception of cellulose as a colloidal aggregate which may be considered to react as a labile complex of groups of varying dimensions representing a state of matter somewhat analogous as to that of a saline electrolyte-that is, it reacts rather a solution-aggregate than by a succession of molecular combinations; the masses actually reacting following the stoichiometrical ratios proper to the dimensions of these ultimate groups, and retaining their relationship in the aggregate, which is thus progressively modified by the entrance of the new groups (p. 7). Owing to the prevailing ignorance as to the nature of colloids and the relation of this condition of a substance to its chemical character, both the language and the ideas employed by the authors in the development of their thesis are, as they themselves admit, somewhat vague, and it is difficult to realise exactly wherein lies the advantage of the new standpoint over the old view of cellulose as a highly complex molecule, coupled with the recognition of the fact that both the parent substance and many of its derivatives are only known as colloids. There can, however, be no doubt that sufficient attention has not hitherto been paid to this cardinal fact of the colloidal character of cellulose, and the authors do good service by insisting upon it and showing very clearly how this conception may serve to suggest many hopeful lines of investigation on questions of scientific and technical importance. The first section of the book contains the development of these ideas, together with a general account of the chemistry of cellulose. In the second section are brought together the more important researches on the subject of cellulose which have appeared during the period 1900-5. An impartial abstract of each investigation is given, followed by critical notes on the bearing of the results on the great question of the chemical structure of cellulose. The third and concluding section deals with the progress made on the technical side of the subject during the same period. This book therefore forms a supplement to the two volumes which have preceded it, but it is valuable, not merely as a compendium of the latest researches on cellulose, but much more as a thoughtful and suggestive contribution to our knowledge of the chemical and physical structure of this important natural product. ARTHUR HARDEN. Astronomie (Paris: A. OUR BOOK SHELF. Cours d'Astronomie. Première partie: Theorique. By H. Andoyer. Pp. 221. Hermann, 1906.) Price 9 francs. THERE is no preface to explain the scope of Prof. Andoyer's book, but it appears to consist of the notes of a course of lectures on spherical astronomy. Now, it is characteristic of lecture-notes to offer definitions in place of explanations; also, they have a tendency to disintegrate into a bewildering array of unconnected problems. The book has these defects. But as an exposition of the art of manipulating the very cumbersome formulæ of spherical trigonometry which pervade astronomy, it will fulfil a useful purpose. mathematical treatment is good and concise; moreover, the problems treated are mostly of a severely practical character. The author has wisely taken as his guide the Connaissance des Temps; he refers to The it continually, and there is very little in the book which has not some direct bearing on the use or construction of its tables. the The usual subjects are fully treated, refraction, parallax, aberration, precession, and nutation; there is a brief account of motion in an ellipse. The chapter on the geocentric motions of the planets is not very satisfactory; the student who has followed the lengthy investigations of the preceding chapters might h safely have been offered something more advanced and more approximate to the practical problem than the very rudimentary theory here given. The apparent motion of satellites is in like manner inadequately treated. The last chapter, which deals with eclipses, is, perhaps, the best feature of the book; interesting way. The general accuracy and precision solar eclipses are treated in a very thorough and of the book are admirable; the approximations ané assumptions made are always clearly stated. Occa sionally, however, precision is carried to excess, as for instance, when the proper motion of Arcturus is given in seconds per tropical year (p. 141). It is a pity that the book is not printed in the usual way. It appears to have been reproduced in facsimile from the written manuscript. This is a needless sacrifice of clearness, and must to some extent diminish its A. S. E. value as a book for reference. Les Révélations de l'Écriture d'après un Contrôle scientifique. By Alfred Binet. Pp. viii+260. (Paris: Félix Alcan, 1906.) Price 5 francs. IN this book M. Binet, the well-known experimental psychologist of the Sorbonne, describes an investigation of the art of telling intelligence and character from handwriting. After some preliminary inquiries to ascertain how far " graphologists are able to recognise sex and age by means of writing, M. Binet submitted to several experts specimens of the handwriting of people of great intellectual eminence, such as Renan, Dumas fils, and Claude Bernard, together with others obtained from persons known to be of ordinary intelligence. The general result was to show that, though the experts were more often right than wrong, they were liable to the grossest errors, as in one case in which Renan was judged to be of mediocre and uncultivated intelligence, an opinion into which the expert appears to have been led by the repetition of a word in the sample. In the estimation of character a similar result was obtained. This was tested by submitting to the graphologists specimens of the the handwriting of notorious criminals to be distinguished from the writing of people of good moral reputation. Here again the experts were usually more or less right, but bad mistakes were made, as when a man who had murdered his mother with every circumstance of brutality was judged to be a young girl, "douce, modeste, et peu coquette. In the simple distinction of the two classes of people concerned in the tests, the number of correct answers was distinctly greater than should have been expected from chance, and this preponderance of correct judgments was greater in the estimation of intelligence than in that of character; but it is not clear that clues derived from the subject-matter of the samples of writing were altogether excluded in the former case. " In M. Binet's hands the graphologists themselves became the subjects of investigation, and it may perhaps be regarded as evidence that their art has a scientific basis that some of the experts showed themselves greatly superior to others, under an experimental procedure which deprived them of many of those adventitious aids on which it is probable they usually rely. 2000 20 |